Educating High School Students About The Importance Of Contraceptives Research Paper

Teaching High School Students About The Importance Of Contraceptives - Research Paper Example Giving sexual instruction to secondary school understudies on the critical of utilizing contraceptives is pivotal in light of the fact that it is one method of keeping up their wellbeing. The soundness of understudies is basic since it will empower understudies to concentrate well in schools with no wellbeing confusions. Prior pregnancy to understudies may prompt wellbeing dangers particularly to youthful moms. The exploration study demonstrates that a lady should begin conceiving an offspring in any event when she is over 18 years of age, however around 15 million youngsters bear kids when they have not yet arrived at the necessary kid bearing age. This represents a wellbeing dangers to them, and the hazard to more youthful moms is higher than the hazard to the mother over 25 to 25 years. For instance, the maternal death rate for young people between 13 to 16 years old is multiple times higher than females in their prior or late twenties. Conveying and instructing secondary school u nderstudies on the huge of contraceptives will diminish the explicitly transmitted illnesses, for example, HIV/AIDS and different maladies. Sexually transmitted diseases present risky dangers prominently to explicitly dynamic understudies. The majority of the secondary school understudies are explicitly dynamic as a result of physical changes and companion bunch impacts from their companions. A considerable lot of them don't comprehend the critical and the method of shielding themselves from undesirable pregnancies and STDs. Numerous social orders are disapprove of issues of pre-marriage sex; accordingly most secondary school understudies may feel embarrassed or humiliated on the off chance that they put forth attempts of looking for help about the utilization of contraceptives. Accordingly, expanding mindfulness through instructing understudies on the huge of wellbeing regenerative and HIV/AIDS counteraction is significant (Hartman, Monasterio, and Hwang (233). For example, the sch ool my present this projects as school educational plan or give mass training exercises at any rate once in a month to all understudies. This is crucial in light of the fact that it will bring issues to light and empower understudies to take part in safe sex. Sex instruction on the utilization of contraceptives is one path through which understudies become mindful of the issues related with undesirable pregnancies and STDs. Circulating contraceptives, for example, condoms and teaching understudies on having safe sex is crucial. This is on the grounds that it will empower understudies to settle on sound sexual choices. Numerous guardians overlook to offer direction and guiding or show their adolescents on the significance of utilizing contraceptives as a result of dread and accept that they will urge sexual practices to their kids (Bruess and Jerrold 314). In any case, teaching young people on the significance of having safe sex is basic since secondary schools understudies definitel y think about sex. For example, the expanded mechanical headway particularly media and Internet have presented numerous young people to different sexual practices. In this way, they have a deep understanding of sex;

Disaparity economics Who is the top 1% of the income and where do they Essay

Disaparity financial aspects Who is the top 1% of the pay and where do they live - Essay Example Uniqueness financial matters is affected by numerous components like globalization, world of politics, and social changes. In America, it is asserted that globalization made â€Å"money go really crazy† (Peterson, refered to in Freeland). The way of life of the most extravagant is a long ways from that of poor people. The most extravagant are the globetrotters who never remain in the nation for long. They realize remote places better than they do puts in their own nation. They invest more energy with carrier airline stewards than with their families. The vast majority of these most extravagant individuals are businesspeople. An investigate the lives and societies of these individuals causes a typical individual to evaluate how diversely they live their lives than a working class individual who needs to manage such a large number of frailties throughout everyday life. For instance, the business advertise is so eccentric in light of the fact that the financial state of the nation has made cutbacks so regular now wherever in the US. All the capital increases continue moving toward that 1 percent which as of now has enough of these additions. The outcome is that different classes, particularly the middles class, is radically looted off of its benefits. For instance, Freeland in her adroit book gives instances of Bill Gates and Warren Buffet to demonstrate how incredibly inconsistent the American culture has become. It is asserted that both these men together have a tight handle on as much riches as the other 120 million Americans at the base of the riches dispersion. Entryways and Buffet are two most significant names of the top 1% of the US society. Smorgasbord lives in Omaha in not an exceptionally lavish home. In any case, the structure of the house is extremely pleasant. He additionally simply sold an extravagant country estate situated in Laguna Beach. It is sheltered to state that he carries on with a truly agreeable way of life. Bill Gates lives in a huge house which took more than 7 years and 63 million dollars to construct alone. The manor is situated in Washington. There is each extravagance possible

Giving when it counts

Giving when it counts Many years ago, when I worked as a volunteer at a hospital, I got to know a little girl named Liz who was suffering from a rare and serious disease. Her only chance of recovery appeared to be a blood transfusion from her 5-year-old brother, who had miraculously survived the same disease and had developed the antibodies needed to combat the illness. The doctor explained the situation to her little brother, and asked the little boy if he would be willing to give his blood to his sister. I saw him hesitate for only a moment before taking a deep breath and saying, Yes, Ill do it if it will save her.As the transfusion progressed, he lay in bed next to his sister and smiled, as we all did, seeing the color returning to her cheeks. Then his face grew pale and his smile faded. He looked up at the doctor and asked with a trembling voice, Will I start to die right away?.Being young, the little boy had misunderstood the doctor; he thought he was going to have to give his sister all of his blood in order to save her.

Government Driven Economics And Its Effect On National...

Authoritarianism can coexist with liberal markets, and is in fact the best way to ensure the well being of the people of a country. In Iran, state driven economics have had a negative effect on our national economy, and a transition to a more market based economy is essential. This is evident from both culturalist and structuralist viewpoints. Culturalist theory assumes that the culture of a society holds the most power, and the society’s structure is critical. Ideology and ideas are most influential in persuading members to act. In Iran, we have a culture of deference to our leaders which mainly stems from the preeminence of Shia’ Islam. Shi’ism holds clerics in high esteem, as they are thought to be substitutes for the Twelfth Imam and are therefore capable of translating God’s word for his followers. Although this might appear to indicate that Iran is more culturally suited for a state led economy, the opposite is true. The leader of the Iranian Revolut ion, Ayatollah Khomeini, as well as the vast majority of clerics in Iran, espoused privatization and the importance of property rights. An adherence to their teachings, therefore, would require Iran to move away from state centered economics and embrace a liberal market. This would also support the ideals of the Islamic Revolution, which include equality, justice, and support for the oppressed. Liberal economics are the best way to ensure economic stability for all citizens of Iran, and so would fulfill this ideology.Show MoreRelatedTariff and Non-Tariff Barriers882 Words   |  4 PagesInternational Trade is the branch of economics concerned with the exchange of goods and services with foreign countries. In the context of globalization, International trade has become an even more important topic now that so many countries have begun to move from state-run to market-driven economies. Tariff and non-tariff barriers play a large part in this process. Tariff Barriers Tariffs are among the oldest forms of government economic intervention. They are most commonly used as taxes on importsRead MoreChina s Economic Growth Is Unstable, Unbalanced, Uncoordinated, And Unsustainable761 Words   |  4 PagesIn the National People’s Congress press conference in March 2007, China’s Premier Wen Jiabao argues the biggest problem with China’s economy is that its economic growth is unstable, unbalanced, uncoordinated, and unsustainable. Since export and investment play unsustainable roles in increasing China’s real GDP, this study tries to testify how consumption enhances the sustainability of China’s real GDP in the short run over a long period of time. As Krugman (1994) suggests, increase in the economicRead MoreInternational Perspective : South Korea1260 Words   |  6 Pages15, 1948 and a rapid growth of its economy transformed it into a highly advanced economy by 1995. 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General Mills a History of Responsibility - 1083 Words

General Mills: A History Of Responsibility Officially taking the name in 1928, General Mills has become one of the largest food companies in the world. They own brands like Cheerios, Pillsbury, Yoplait, Green Giant, Betty Crocker, Old El Paso, Totino’s and Progresso. Since the creation of their corporation, General Mills have established themselves as a company that flourishes by being socially and economically responsible. Their mission is to lead by example, and by doing so hope to promote positive change. Unlike other large corporations, General Mills uses their profits to give back. They have a strong commitment to their community, environment, and their employees. The Community Since the beginning of the company in the†¦show more content†¦General Mills have received many awards and recognitions based on their commitment to valuing their employees. America’s Most Admired Companies, Fortune 100 Best Places to Work for GLBT Equality 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers, Working Mothers Magazine Best Places to Launch a Career, BusinessWeek General Mills believes that by providing their employees with wellness resources they will cut down on time lost and decrease medical spending. And for over 50 years, they have provided those resources. They focus on prevention and helping employees make good, healthy decisions. Today’s workforce would be a great deal healthier, more reliable, and would be more optimistic about their careers if they had these types of resources available to them. General Mills spend a great deal of money marketing these socially responsible efforts. On just about every box of cereal you pick up, you will see these marketing techniques. Every General Mills cereal boxes you see have content promoting healthy and physically active kids. 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Problem-Solving Essay Free Essays

Today the world has many issues, like hopelessness, prejudice, and selfish desires. The definition of the word moral is; concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior and the goodness or badness of human character. In the world today there are few moral standards; we have numerous evil influences and few holy and godly influences. We will write a custom essay sample on Problem-Solving Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now What does it mean to live honorably? It means that you respect yourself and others and live a life worth living. People have selfish desires to please themselves and not others. The Bible tells us in 1 Corinthians 15:33 do not be achieved: â€Å"Bad company ruins good morals. † The company we keep, the influences we are under, and the things we look at all directly affect our morals and ethics. Some of the things that affect us morally are, music movies, books, the Internet, the friends we have, and the relationship (or lack of) that we have with God. The way we treat others and ourselves is a huge part of our lives and the way we live them. We should strive to be like Jesus in all our endeavors. Matthew 5:48, you therefore must be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect. Some of the ways that we could help the world regain moral standards are, leading by example, helping out or volunteering, and evangelism. The example we set should be an important priority for us as Christians; we should be Christ-like at all times. We could also help out the less fortunate, volunteering at charities or donating money; we should do our parts as Chrism’s messengers in the world. The final thing we could do is evangelism, the spreading of Chrism’s word. The world Is a sinful place, and God will come soon and take his people from It. The morals that we have are vital to our character. You could live honorably by, asking questions, figuring out what leads you astray, and helping fix It. James 1:22-25, but be doers of the word, and not hearers only, deceiving yourselves. For If anyone Is a hearer of the word and not a doer, he Is like a man who looks Intently at his natural face In a mirror. For he looks at himself and goes away and at once forgets what he was like. But the one who looks Into the perfect law, the law of liberty, and perseveres, being no hearer who forgets but a doer who acts, he will be blessed In his doing. Problem-Solving Essay By Abernathy The world is a sinful place, and God will come soon and take his people from it. Asking questions, figuring out what leads you astray, and helping fix it. James 1:22-25, but be doers of the word, and not hearers only, deceiving yourselves. For if anyone is a hearer of the word and not a doer, he is like a man who looks intently at his natural face in a mirror. For he looks at himself and goes away and at once forgets what he was like. But the one who looks into the perfect law, the law of liberty, and perseveres, being no hearer who forgets but a doer who acts, he will be blessed. How to cite Problem-Solving Essay, Essays

Food History of India

Question: Discuss about theFood History of India. Answer: Introduction Indian cuisine consists of a variety of traditional and modern dishes exclusively prepared in different local and urban areas of India. Depending on the culture, population type, climate and employment, the dishes vary with change in region (Fieldhouse 2013, p. 75). Religious choices also affect pattern in Indian cooking and the Indian cuisine is also influenced by Middle Eastern culture after the advent of Mughal rule. The history of the Indian biryani is also linked to the Mughal era. The purpose of the report is to provide the history of origin of the Indian food, meat biryani. It traces the diversity of Indian cuisine by observing the different recipes of the dish. It will help in analyzing the regional variation of the recipes and find common ingredients which are mainly used in preparing biryani in India. The main objective is to trace the history of each ingredients used while cooking the dish and the report discusses the cultural influences on the dish. History of Meat Biryani Biryani is a popular dish among the Indian subcontinent consisting of rich spices, meat and rice. Although it is regarded as a dish native to India, however the dish came to India after the Muslims invasion into India. The word Biryani itself is derived from Persian word called Birian. The Islamic Persians have also popularized the dish and inspired Indian people to include it in their cuisine. There is great controversy and argument regarding the history of the dish. Indian biryani is mostly regarded as a Mughlai cuisine as it was first cooked in the Mughal royal kitchen. After Muslims invasion into India such as coming of Afghans, Turks, Mughal and Persians, they indulged in rich foods and brought many dishes to India. The Mughals are regarded as the one who introduced biryani in India (Narayanan, 2015). However Paddock (2015, pp. 22-40) also argues that similar type of dish was present in India before the Mughals came to India. For example a rice dish called Oon Soru was regarded as similar to biryani as it also has similar ingredients like rice, meat, pepper and bay leaf. This dish was prepared for military warriors in the year 2 A.D. Famous historian Al-Beruni has also mentioned in his accounts description of dishes that are similar to the biryani. The history of biryani is also traced to the time of Turk-Mongol conqueror, Timur who brought a dish similar to the biryani in 1398. The dish was prepared specially for his army preparing for war. A mixture of rice, meat and spices were cooked in earthen pot after burying it in a hot pit. After it was cooked properly, the preparation was dug up and served to the soldiers. Historical stories also trace the origin of the dish to Shah Jahans queen, Mumtaz Mahals time during the year 1593-1631. The story goes that the queen once found the army soldiers under-nourished, and hence she ordered her chef to prepare a well-nourished dish. In this way, the biryani came into being (Ahmed 2012, pp. 95-103). The Nawabs and Diwans were also renowned for understanding the nuances of flavours and aromas of biryani. Their chefs prepared the biryani according to the Nawabs preference of dishes and it lead to popularization of biryani along with other delicacies like the mirchi ka salan and kawab. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was the reason behind the creation of unique style of Calcutta biryani and it happened after the Nawab was deposed by British to Kolkata. The Nawabs ruling in small territories of Northern India also contributed to the introduction of regional style of Biryanis like Hyderabadi Biryani and the Arcot biryani (ALAM 2015). Different Recipes of the Dish India has a variety of dishes in its culinary list, however people mostly love to to indulge in biryani. With different states and different locations, the dish has evolved over the years and it is made in distinct styles according to food culture of different states. The strength of the biryani lies in its balance of spices and aromas to give a delicious dish which is a symbol of a strong Indian cuisine. The list of different recipes for biryani includes the following: Hyderabadi Biryani- This Biryani available in the streets of Hyderabad has its own authentic flavour and style of cooking. Hyderabadi Biryani came into origin during the governance of Asaf Jah I who was the governor of Deccan during Aurangebs rule. It is made with chicken or goats meat where the marinated with huge spices like and cooked with rice on slow fire to get an aromatic flavour (Anand 2012). Kolkata biryani- This biryani is inspired by the Lucknow style of cooking biryani. When the last Nawab of Awadh, Wajid Ali Shah was in exile in Kolkata in 1856, his personal chef cooked this dish for him. The distinction between Hyderabadi and Kolkata biryani is that Kolkatas biryani also has an additional ingredient of potatoes. Initially, poor people who could not afford meat cooked the biryani with potatoes instead of meat, however potato later became a speciality for biryani of Kolkata. The primary spices include cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and cardamom mixed in yoghurt based preparation for meat. The rice is cooked separately with saffron aromas and the meat is added later after the rice is cooked which gives it a distinct local flavor ("Ten Delicious And Different Styles Of Indian Biryani" 2016). Awadhi biryani- Awadhi biryani is the native style of making biryani in Lucknow. The cooking style in this region is influenced by the Mughal cooking techniques and cooking pattern of Middle East and Central Asia. The cooks of this region introduced the dum style of cooking biryani which involves cooking meat and rice over a slow fire for one hour. The parboiled rice is cooked in water containing cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves and other spices is layered with cooked meat curry and then cooked according to dum style of cooking to make the dish complete ("Ten Delicious And Different Styles Of Indian Biryani" 2016). Malabar Biryani- The Malabar biryani is a distinct South Indian version of biryani cooked in Kerala. It is mostly consumed by muslim community of Malabar region. The specialty of this biryani is selection of a type of rice called Khyma and other key ingredients include chicken and spices like raisin, cloves, cinnamon, tomato, ginger, garlic, tomato, shallot and onions. In this regions also, the dum style is applied for cooking the biryani (Mangalassary 2016, pp. 119-134). Dindigul Biryani- Another specialized version of South Indian biryani came from the town of Dindigul in Tamil Nadu. It has its unique tangy taste due to the addition of curd and lemon juice in the preparation. In some regions, extra flavour is also given by adding a lot of tomatoes in the biryani (Mangalassary 2016, pp. 119-134). Common Ingredients in Biryani and History of Each Ingredients The delicious biryani results after a balance of ingredients and spices are cooked according a specific cooking technique. The most traditional method is the dum pukht style of cooking biryani and the steam works to tenderize the meat and add flavors to the rice. Apart from main ingredient of meat or chickens, a good flavored biryani is dished out after combining it with Indian spices. The list of ingredient differs according to different culture and geographical locations. The common ingredients in almost all biryani include cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and mace to add aromas and other spices for flavors like ginger, garlic, mint leaves, coriander leaves and bay leaves (Pandey 2015). Cardamom is a spice which is used both in sweet and savory dishes and its origin is traced to India, Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh and Finland. The cardamom seeds give a strong flavor to the dish and the flavor blends perfectly with ingredients like meats in biryani. The spice also complements well with other spices like ginger, pepper, cinnamon, saffron and cloves. Historical accounts of ancient medicines by Charaka also mentions about the spices. Kerala was the key trader of cardamom spices who sold it to merchants and exported them in foreign markets (Kodali et al. 2015, pp. 1173-1177) The use of cinnamon is traced back to 2000 B.C. when Egyptians used it for embalming. Arab traders also popularized its use and the use of this expensive spice was regarded as a status symbol in Europe. It was also used to preserve meat during winter months. Many traders started exploring the actual sources of the spice and the Portuguese traders claimed they discovered the spice in Ceylon around 1518. While the Cassia cinnamon has a strong flavor, the Ceylon Cinnamon has a mild flavour best for baking cakes (Jansen 2015). The nutmeg is useful for its medicinal properties. It is evident from the writings of Pliny when the spice was used in the 1st century and Indian historical writings recommend it is useful to cure fever and headaches. In the ancient times, the spice was very expensive and not affordable by all, however now it is widely used in Indian cuisine (Queenborough et al. 2013, pp. 67-78). Mace is crimson colored spice giving a delicate flavor to dishes. It is generally added first while cooking too develop its flavor and that is why it is added in the biryani rice while the rice is boiling to give it a flavor. Mace is derived from nutmeg and Roman author Pliny first mentions about the spice by stating it a tree bearing nuts with flavors. Arabs merchants also sold this spices to Constantinople and the spice finally came to India when the British East India Company came to India (Queenborough et al. 2013, pp. 67-78). The clove is the spice native to the Malucca Islands and it was once a treasured possession for the Romans. The Chinese used it to avoid bad breath. The Dutch who found the spice in 1605 wanted to monopoly on clove trade by destroying all trees which sprouted in areas which were not under their rule. This practice was strongly opposed as traditionally the tree was planted on the birth of a child and destroying the tree was regarded as destruction for that child too (Kadir 2014). Authenticity and Debate on Indian Origin of the Dish The historical analysis of the history of origin of biryani reveals that although it is regarded as a culinary dish indigenous to India, however biryani came to India mainly by the Muslim invaders who entered India. Similar kind of dish was also reported to made before the Mughal rule, however it cannot be denied that the Indian biryani is inspired the specific taste and flavour of Persian and Mughal rulers. Influence of Different Culture in the Cooking Styles and Ingredient Used for Biryani From the detailed analysis of the history of origin of biryani in India and the diverse recipes of cooking biryani, one can interpret each regions cooking style and choice of ingredient is dependent on the culture of that region. While Timur brought the dish to India and was inspired by Persian style of cooking, Mumtaz Mahals story revealed that the dish was invented in the quest of providing a balanced meal to feed under-nourished army. The history of meat biryani is also traced to West Asia when a pot full of meat, rice and spices was cooked inside a pit. After the transition of the dish from one place to another, the influence of different culture has led to the evolution of different versions of Biryani (Kumari and Jagbir 2015). Among the vast recipes of Biryani currently available in India, this section discusses few of them to determine the influence of different culture on the dish. The Kashmiri biryani is influenced by the mixture of culture of Kashmiri pundits and the Afghan and the Persian culture. The Kashmiri biryani initially named as Kashmiri Katche Gosht ki Biryani was cooked in Kashmir after Mughal emperors frequently visited the state. Kashmiris add a lot of asfoetida in their Biryani as this ingredient is widely available in Kashmir (Mangalassary 2016, pp. 119-134). The Awadhi Biryani was influenced by Mughal culture as when Mughal rulers ruled in Awadh between 1800 to 1900. This Biryani is most popular in North India due to its efficient blend of all flavors and spices. The use of potatoes especially in Kolkata is also influenced by geographical location and culture and potatoes were added in biryanis as poor people could not afford meat. However, the skinned potatoes in biryani became widely accepted by people and it gave a new flavour to the stock. In the same way, the Hyderabadi biryani was influenced by Nizams and Nawab and their culture reflects in the cooking style of Hyderabadi biryani too (Sinha 2015, pp. 56-70). Conclusion Hence the investigation into tracing the history of meat biryani reveals that ioodzt has been included in Indian cuisine inspired by Mughal and Persian culture. The Mughal rulers and Nawab had understood the nuances and flavour of the dish and ordered their chefs to dish out biryanis in India. Analysis of different recipes of biryani reveal that the cooking style and use of ingredients is highly influenced by local cultures and culinary preference of the local residents in the area. Reference Ahmed, Imtiaz. "Regionalism in South Asia: A Conceptual Note."Millennial Asia3, no. 1 (2012): 95-103. ALAM, UZMA. "The Foodscape." PhD diss., BRAC University, 2015. Anand, Jaisree. "Tucking into the biryani: Hyderabadi style."Available at SSRN 2045991(2012). Fieldhouse, Paul.Food and nutrition: customs and culture. Springer, 2013, p. 75. Jansen, E. R. M. "The spice of life." (2015). Kadir, Hatib Abdul. "History of the Moluccans Cloves as a Global Commodity."Kawalu Journal of Local Cultures1, no. 2 (2014). Kodali, Ravi Kishore, and Anupama Muraleedhar. "WSN in spice cultivation." InGreen Computing and Internet of Things (ICGCIoT), 2015 International Conference on, pp. 1173-1177. IEEE, 2015. Kumari, Rewa, and Jagbir Rehal. "Geographical indications: A Tool for Indian traditional food industry."Journal of Progressive Agriculture6, no. 2 (2015): 1-4. Mangalassary, Sunil. "Indian CuisineThe Cultural Connection." InIndigenous Culture, Education and Globalization, pp. 119-134. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2016. Narayanan, Divya. "Cultures of Food and Gastronomy in Mughal and post-Mughal India." (2015). Paddock, Jessica. "Invoking simplicity:Alternativefood and the reinvention of distinction."Sociologia Ruralis55, no. 1 (2015): 22-40. Pandey, Vinita. "Changing Facets of Hyderabadi Tehzeeb: Are we missing anything?."Space and Culture, India3, no. 1 (2015): 17-29. Queenborough, Simon A., Pierre Michel Forget, and Sabrina Russo. "Adding spice to life: A special issue on the Myristicaceae."American Journal of Botany94 (2013): 67-78. Sinha, Dheeraj. "Many Indias Make One India." InIndia Reloaded, pp. 56-70. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015. "Ten Delicious And Different Styles Of Indian Biryani". 2016.Walkthroughindia.Com. https://www.walkthroughindia.com/cuisines/ten-delicious-and-different-styles-of-indian-biryani/.

Correlation between Multiple Pregnancies and Postpartum Depression/Psychosis

Table of Contents Introduction Postpartum Depression Risk factors for PPD Conclusion Works Cited Introduction Currently, there is an ever increasing incidence of multiple births especially in the developed nations and this is mainly attributed to increase in assisted reproductive technologies. Such multiple pregnancies have well known risks on the infants as well as risks on the mother, more so related to premature births. Although there is a broad understanding of the risks that present with multiple births, there is paucity of knowledge on how multiple births are related to the well-being of the mother, particularly her mental wellbeing.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Correlation between Multiple Pregnancies and Postpartum Depression/Psychosis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There is need to examine the mental well-being of mothers with multiple birth since such parents are exposed to various ris ks which exacerbate the likelihood of developing postpartum depression (PPD). Such risks include the stress of bearing and looking after multiple infants, the possibility of having high-risk pregnancy, social isolation, factors such as premature birth, cesarean delivery as well as risks related to assisted reproduction techniques. It is for these reasons that this paper examines the available knowledge on possible association between multiple pregnancies and postpartum depression as well as postpartum psychosis. In recognition of the paucity of information on the relationship between multiple pregnancies and postpartum depression, the paper reviews the likely relationship by understanding the two variables, multiple pregnancies and postpartum depression, in terms of their characteristics. Possible correlations are then suggested relating the adverse effects of multiple pregnancies and the possible links with various causes of postpartum depression. This paper therefore starts with d efining postpartum depression, characteristic symptoms of the condition and the various possible causes which are then related with characteristics and circumstances surrounding multiple pregnancies. Postpartum Depression Postpartum depression is a depression condition that is experienced by women within a month to a period of three months postpartum. It is therefore evident that postpartum depression differs from other forms of depression generally due to the time when the depression occurs. Postpartum depression is usually misdiagnosed with other mental disorders such as peuperal psychosis as well as normal mental and behavioral changes that may occur after birth. Differential diagnosis for PPD should therefore include baby blues, bipolar disorder as well as postnatal psychosis. The main characteristics of PPD include lowered self confidence, increased fatigue, irritability, sleep disturbance, panic, alcohol abuse and anxiety among others (Blicksten and Keith, p. 740). The likelih ood of developing postpartum depression is higher in women who have had postpartum blues with the prevalence of postpartum depression standing at about 6 percent. The prevalence of PPD is reported to be between 10 and 15 percent in Western nations (Oppo et al, p. 239) with either major or minor depression within one year postpartum being between 6.5 and 12.9 percent.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More It is important to note that postpartum depression mainly occurs one to three months postpartum and an individual with a history of depression is at even a higher risk of developing postpartum depression. Some other risk factors that elevate the probability of getting PPD include deprived social support, failure to breastfeed, and previous pregnancy loss among others. Postpartum depression is mainly characterized by symptoms such as reduced sexual drive, lack of good sleep, feelin gs of guilt, and poor mother-child bond (Feldman Christensen, p. 115). Differentiating postpartum depression from postpartum psychosis is an important thing while discussing the relationship between multiple pregnancies and PPD. Postpartum psychosis presents in form of serious depressed moods, hallucinations, disorganized thought system as well as psychotic thoughts and it usually starts close to delivery (O’hara, p. 1259). Postpartum psychosis is a psychiatric disorder which is associated with postpartum depression at its severe stages. It is common with women who have ever had other forms of mental illnesses and thus women who have had multiple births and had postpartum depression have a high likelihood of developing postpartum psychosis. Risk factors for PPD According to Oppo et al (p. 40), the most common risk factors for postpartum depression include presence of anxious thoughts during pregnancy, severe life stressors, and inadequate or absence of social support. The con tribution of obstetric factors is significant but the effect size is small. From the association of the above factors and PPD, it is possible to hypothesize that any eventuality that introduces or exacerbates any of the risk factors among mothers of multiple births would lead to PPD. The relationship between multiple pregnancies and postpartum depression can therefore be deduced from the risk factors since most women with multiple pregnancies become more vulnerable to the risk factors. Blicksten and Keith (p. 741) indicate that there is an increased incidence of psychiatric disorders among women who have had multiple births and that such disorders mainly occurr during postpartum period. Mothers of twins are particularly vulnerable to psychological disorders – postpartum depression and postpartum psychosis – during the first three months postpartum.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Correlation between Multiple Pregnancies and Postpartum De pression/Psychosis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Cassels and Barclay (para 2), there is a noted increase in the risk of postpartum depression among mothers with multiple births. It is specifically identified that the risk of getting postpartum depression increased by 43 percent if a woman had more than one birth compared to women who had only one birth. Cassels and Barclay (para 1) further report that a study conducted using data from the ECLSBC (Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Control Cohort) for children born in 2001 indicated an adjusted ratio of 1.43 in development of severe postpartum depression among mother with multiple birth relative to mothers of singletons. On trying to identify the reason behind women with multiple births having a higher record of postpartum depression, it is identified that having multiple births is mainly considered as a highly stressful life event in most cases. This is because p arenting multiple births presents with unique demands which leave the mother stressed, exhausted and in most cases socially isolated thus predisposing her to postpartum depression/psychosis. Blackstein and Keith (p. 725) indicate that mothers of multiples go through a hard time during breastfeeding and not many of them are able to handle exclusive breastfeeding which is usually emphasized during the first six months of the infant’s life. In specific, these authors report that the process of breastfeeding multiple infants calls for most women to stay awake as breastfeeding two infants during their first three months takes at least 45 minutes and this is done after every 3 to 4 hours. This leaves the mother stressed and predisposes her to mental illness and particularly postpartum depression. Blickstein and Keith (p. 729) emphasize that breastfeeding multiples calls for the mother to meet specific nutritional needs to ensure that there is enough volume and nutritional requireme nts in the milk and this, coupled with lack of sleep, presents as a stressful situation. Issues of time management and hardships in the mode (including positions) of breastfeeding multiples may be a tough experience, especially for inexperienced mothers, that may subject the woman into stress. It is this and other forms of stress that spill over to the development of postpartum depression. It should be noted that multiple pregnancies are characterized by delivery via caesarian section in most cases and this may have deleterious effects on the mother’s health, more so the pain and discomfort that may occur during breastfeeding. Premature births are also common in multiple births with Keirse, Hanssens and Devlieger (p. 523) indicating that rates of preterm births in multiple pregnancies range from 44.2 percent to 68.4 percent in Europe.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This high rate of preterm births in multiple pregnancies implies that the mother undergoes through a stressful moment which requires a lot of support for successful progression from this stage. Lack of social support and the whole experience of delivering preterm infants are enough stressors to subject the mother into the path of postpartum depression. As noted earlier, taking care of multiple births is a tasking and stressing situation that places a woman at the risk of developing postpartum depression. The mother is likely to start feeling guilty when she thinks her ability to take care of the multiples and any other child that they may be having. It often becomes hard for the mother to give attention to all the children and makes the woman worried and guilty thus paving way for PPD. Another challenge that may make the mother of multiple pregnancies become more anxious and depressed is the high likelihood of requiring intensive care for multiple infants who are born prematurely. A ccording to Spath (p 242), the likelihood of requiring intensive care among multiple premature twins is 16 times higher than in singletons. Moreover, the infants have an elevated risk of up to 10 times of developing celebral palsy. Chances of the multiples dying are also high (3 – 4 times higher than in singletons). Such circumstances predispose the mother to anxiety, which may further be increased by existence of financial constraints of dealing with the circumstances. Overall, the mother of multiple births becomes more prone to postpartum depression. The fact that premature babies have to be under neonatal care, thus away from the mother may create anxiety in the mother or even make her depressed and eventually welcome postpartum depression. The vulnerability of multiple pregnancy mothers to postpartum depression is elevated by the fact that most multiple pregnancies result from an already stressful procedure, in vitro fertilization. The stress associated with assisted repr oduction and even the circumstances that lead a woman to seek assisted reproduction are enough to cause stress which later presents as PPD. Postpartum depression is even likely to be more probable after a woman bears multiple infants compared to bearing single infants severally. This is because handling multiple infants is obviously more tasking than handling a single infant. The presence of postpartum depression has also been said to be about five times common among multiple infants mothers compared to mothers with singletons thus making one conclude that the likelihood of having PPD among mothers of multiples is higher than among mothers of singletons. The reporting that up to 76 percent of mothers of twins experience constant exhaustion relative to only 8 percent of mothers to singletons is a good indicator that multiple pregnancies are more prone to PPD (Haddon, para 2). Assisted reproductive technologies play a great role in the incidence of multiple births as reported by Barke hall-Thomas, Woodward and Wallace (p. 222). In a study conducted by the authors in Australia on the outcomes of triplet births, it was found that up to 59 percent of the triplets were due to assisted reproductive technologies. The incidence of preterm births was found to be high with the median gestation period being 32.5 weeks with a significant 43 percent of the infants being born prior to 32 weeks of gestation. Other than the high prevalence of preterm births in multiple pregnancies, several complications that have the capacity to cause depression in mothers were identified. For instance it was noted that cases of preterm labor as well as rapture of membrane before term were reported. Moreover, almost all the women (93%) gave birth through caesarean section with some suffering complications during the procedure. From this study, it is evident that multiple pregnancies are accompanied by a myriad of problems and circumstances that predispose the mother to the risk of developing po stpartum depression. There is also a high prevalence of prenatal complications that accompany multiple pregnancies and these can have an effect on the development of postpartum depression. Some of these complications include antepartum hemorrhage, cervical incompetence and pre-eclampsia (Barkehall-Thomas, Woodward Wallace, p. 224). Elsewhere, it is reported that mothers of multiple pregnancy often experience hypertension as a main complication. It is important to note that hypertension is also related to stress and therefore it is possible that multiple pregnancies are related to postpartum depression by way of increased incidences of hypertension. The combination of these complications cannot be underestimated in the development of postpartum depression since they are events that leave the mother anxious or stressed (Rosello-Soberon, Fuentes-Chaparro Casanueva, p. 297). Conclusion Postpartum depression is a well acknowledged mental condition among women and it occurs within one m onth to three months after delivery. On the other hand, multiple pregnancies have been on the rise more so with the advancement and penetration of assisted reproduction technologies. A well understood phenomenon associated with multiple pregnancies is the occurrence of several complications among them being preterm birth. Despite this knowledge, the above review of literature identifies that there is paucity of information and research focusing on the relationship between postpartum depression and multiple pregnancy. It is however notable that the available information indicates that postpartum depression cases are higher among mothers of multiple infants compared to mothers of singletons. In addition, it is also evident from this review that there are several factors related to the observation that postpartum depression is more common among mothers of multiple pregnancies. The circumstances surrounding multiple pregnancies and multiple births are found to be sufficient enough to ca use stress and anxiety among multiple pregnancy mothers. As such, these stressful and anxious events give way to the development of postpartum depression. Among the main stressful conditions that have been identified in this research include problems associated with assisted reproduction (such as preterm births, caesarean section and other health conditions), the stress of taking care of the multiple infants more so in breastfeeding the baby, the trauma of caesarian section and possible complications as well as lack of social support. Despite a relationship being identified that postpartum depression is related to multiple pregnancies, the direction of causality as well as the explanations on how the two happen has not been thoroughly explained in literature. It is therefore pertinent that more research is conducted on this topic to shed more light on this relationship and eliminate dependence on speculations. It is however notable that the identification that multiple pregnancies a re related to more instances of postpartum depression can be useful in heightening assessment for PPD among this group of women. This would help in early diagnosis and treatment of PPD before these women are overwhelmed by the condition. Works Cited Barkehall-Thomas Andrea, Woodward, Louise and Wallace Euan M. Maternal and neonatal outcomes in 54 triplet pregnancies managed in an Australian tertiary centre. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 44; (2004): 222–227. Blickstein, Isaac and Keith Louis G. Multiple pregnancy: epidemiology, gestation perinatal outcome. Second edition. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor Francis, 2006. Cassels Caroline and Barclay Laurie. Multiple birth increases postpartum depression risk. 2009. Mediscape Medical News. Retrieved from https://www.medscape.com/ Feldman, Mitchell D. and Christensen John F. Behavioral medicine: a guide for clinical practice. Third edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007. Haddon, Lynda P. Postpartum depression and mothers of multiples. N.d. Multiple Births: Prenatal Education. Web. O’hara, Michael W. Postpartum depression: What we know. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65.12; (2009): 1258–1269. DOI: 10.1002/jclp.20644 Oppo, A., Mauri, M., Ramacciotti, D., Camilleri, V. and Banti, S. et al. Risk factors for postpartum depression: the role of the Postpartum Depression Predictors Inventory-Revised (PDPI-R). Arch Womens Mental Health 12; (2009):239–249 DOI 10.1007/s00737-009-0071-8 Rosello-Soberon, Maria E., Fuentes-Chaparro Laiza and Casanueva Eshter. Twin pregnancies: Eating for three? Maternal nutrition update. Nutrition Reviews, 63. 9; (2005): 295–302. Spath, Dona Berarelli. The problem of multiple pregnancies. Reproductive Biomedicine Online, 41.2; 2007:242-245. This research paper on Correlation between Multiple Pregnancies and Postpartum Depression/Psychosis was written and submitted by user Shannon A. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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Free Essays on Whigs And Democrats

Whigs and Democrats Since the day’s democracy began, it has been the fastest growing type of government in the world. Democracy means the people are sovereign, government by the people. Representative institutions derive their authority from the people and are responsible to the people. Democrats favored low tariffs, hard money, antimonopoly, and a hand’s off governmental policy toward the economy. Most Americans were not only democrats, but in the classical sense of believing in individual liberty, they were also liberals since they believed in equality, majority rule, with recognition of the rights of minorities, and government that is responsive and responsible to a broad electorate. Democracy also includes freedom of speech, press, and assembly; freedom to form opposition political parties and to run for office, commitment to individual dignity and to equal opportunities for people to develop their full potential. From this period to today, Democracy has reigned as one of the most powe rful forms of government. John Locke said in his ‘Second Treatise of Civil Government’ (1690), â€Å"all men were fundamentally equal in the sense that no man had jurisdiction over any other man. Each individual was equal and free to judge his own causes and to protect his interests against all other men.† Under the umbrella of democracy the American States and the federal government have grown politically and socially. The foundations of the democratic process in America were completely different from anywhere else on the globe at that time. This is because in the United States, the Democratic Party was commonly referred to as the party of the â€Å"common man.† It received this title by implementing agrarian policies, incendiaries, and by splitting the property of the rich, and dividing it amongst the poor. The Whigs typically criticized them for this. Their policies included a paternalistic Government that would nurture business, protect th... Free Essays on Whigs And Democrats Free Essays on Whigs And Democrats Whigs and Democrats Since the day’s democracy began, it has been the fastest growing type of government in the world. Democracy means the people are sovereign, government by the people. Representative institutions derive their authority from the people and are responsible to the people. Democrats favored low tariffs, hard money, antimonopoly, and a hand’s off governmental policy toward the economy. Most Americans were not only democrats, but in the classical sense of believing in individual liberty, they were also liberals since they believed in equality, majority rule, with recognition of the rights of minorities, and government that is responsive and responsible to a broad electorate. Democracy also includes freedom of speech, press, and assembly; freedom to form opposition political parties and to run for office, commitment to individual dignity and to equal opportunities for people to develop their full potential. From this period to today, Democracy has reigned as one of the most powe rful forms of government. John Locke said in his ‘Second Treatise of Civil Government’ (1690), â€Å"all men were fundamentally equal in the sense that no man had jurisdiction over any other man. Each individual was equal and free to judge his own causes and to protect his interests against all other men.† Under the umbrella of democracy the American States and the federal government have grown politically and socially. The foundations of the democratic process in America were completely different from anywhere else on the globe at that time. This is because in the United States, the Democratic Party was commonly referred to as the party of the â€Å"common man.† It received this title by implementing agrarian policies, incendiaries, and by splitting the property of the rich, and dividing it amongst the poor. The Whigs typically criticized them for this. Their policies included a paternalistic Government that would nurture business, protect th...

Evaluate the different testing processes Assignment

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What is 'Queer Thoery' Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

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Social, economic and political factors of crime

Social, economic and political factors of crime For many, there is the belief that the existence of punishment is linked to the problem of crime, and that the extent of crime is the key factor in determining the level of punishment. But some of the most important sociologists (and penologists) such as Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Michel Foucault argue that crime is relatively trivial, and that the form and degree of punishment in society must be understood through its relationship with other greater social, economic and political factors. Karl Marx was a 19th century sociologist and economist whom were interested in the role punishment held in class-based social and economic regulation. He criticized the failure of penal theory to consider the social factors, especially economic inequality and poverty, which underlay criminal activity. Using this framework, others such as Georg Rusche and Otto Kirchheimer, in Punishment and Social Structure (1939), looked at the formation of different forms of punishment in the context of the labor markets fluctuating needs, from the Middle Ages through to contemporary society. For example, imprisonment serves as both a practical source of inexpensive labor for the state and, during periods of high unemployment, as a method of incapacitating dangerous offenders from doing public harm. These Marxist ideals influenced historical changes in penology in Western Europe beginning in the Middle Ages into the Mercantilist Era. During the early middle ages, there was a bot (betterment) paid by the criminal to the offended party which gave rise to the idea of compensation and a wite was a fine paid to the King. These fines were forms of tiered punishments that varied depending on ones socioeconomic class. For upper-class/freed citizens, punishment was given in compensation fines, but for lower-class/slaves punishment was much more brutal in the form of corporal death. These practices carried into the late middle ages and into the Mercantilist Era (1400-1700s). As middle-age feudalism declined, capitalism (as focused on by Marx) and international trade rose and expanded to new heights. These economic changes influenced the creation of new, wealth merchant class and the vagabond poor. Vagabonds were displaced workers from the former agricultural-run society of feudalism, who were now non-productive in a commercially dominant Western culture. This led to the widespread belief that work was to be associated with morality (17, BL). The poor, criminal vagabond social class we re exploited and sentenced as laborers. Karl Marx asserted that punishment could be used to force people to work as here in the case where vagabonds worked in galleys as reliable workforce, served in workhouses in Great Britain to help change and reform their character, and transportation where criminals were sent away for manual labor to help meet the needs of growing American and European colonization. Durkheim The Father of Sociology published several works during his time, however, none has had more impact than his book, The Division of Labor in Society written in 1893. Here he rejected the idea that punishment must break away from either vengeance or the emotional satisfaction it gives. Durkheim believed that the social function of punishment was to give effect to the moral and emotional outrage of a society whose norms have been violated by the criminal act. A criminal act is therefore identified as that which affects the communitys collective conscience; criminality serves as a way to explain the moral limitations of the social group. Punishment is the reciprocal effect of a collective moral outrage, creating and sustaining a type of solidarity crucial to the existence of a functional society. From these ideas arises Durkheims theory of social solidarity, as shown in his work The Two Laws of Penal Evolution, (1902) whereby he states that despite changing penal methods overtime , the underlying mechanisms and functions of punishment remain constant. Social solidairty insisted that rather than focusing on either the crime (or the criminal), one should observe the after-affect of crime on victims and the community as a whole. Offenders must be held accountable to these victims, and part of their penalty may involve direct restitution. The goal is begin a process of restoring the trust and solidarity that is broken by criminal activity by focusing on the social relationships that have been harmed as a result of crime. Durkheims scientific study of penology led to the conclusion that the severity of punishment was diminishing, and that solidarity could be broken into two categories: mechanical and organic solidarity. He called mechanical solidarity the solidarity of sameness which organic solidarity was made up of differences. The idea behind this is that organisms are made up of parts that serve different functions but manage to work together. In relation to society, Durkheim stated society was based on the division of labor, and is reliant on the communitys mutual dependency on one another. Although before the time of Durkheim, these same theoretical ideas can be seen in Colonial and Federalist America. This period included the early settling of colonists in areas such as Massachusetts and Virginia (17th and late 18th centuries), where society was dominated by the institutions of church, family and most importantly community. While religion played an important role in determining punishment, punishment was more so based on the social reaction to crime. Crime was religiously reflected as sin and as a moral matter of right versus wrong. Methods of punishment included fines (to victims most commonly), whippings, mutilation, shaming and banishment. Discipline and punishment held a significant role in social solidarity by publicly demonstrating rules, and expressing moral outrage over wrongful acts in a collective manner. These principles can also be applied to provide insight in the American Temperance Movement of the 1830s. As democratization increased as the nation expand ed economically and socially, religion still held a high importance that reflected in how crime was seen. Crime was viewed a moral disease, and more specifically alcoholism was becoming a national epidemic. The American Society for the Promotion of Temperance declared that, all temperate people should remain so and that the others should kill themselves off (50 BL). Alcoholism was collectively viewed as having a linkage to crime that caused labor to decrease which consequently affected American economic prosperities. These abolition and temperance movements of the 1800s were representative of social and moral reform going on within American culture. Michel Foucault was a 20th century French sociologist who argued that punishment is a threat to society, and that discipline is power-knowledge mechanism for domination. Foucault is well-renowned for his 1977 book entitled, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, where he questioned how penology has changed in the way criminals are punished (in France) and introduces disciplinary punishment as the dominating practice in the modern world. He identified a qualitative shift in punishment from 1750 and 1820 in Europe and the U.S, pointing out three major changes: (1) punishment changed from body to soul/psyche, (2) from vengeance to transformation and (3) from punishment to corrections. In the second part of his book, Foucault marks the prison as the template for the technology of modern discipline. Disciplinary punishment gives professionals (psychologists, program facilitators, parole officers, etc.) power over the prisoner, most notably in that the prisoners length of stay dep ends on the professionals judgment. Foucault goes on to argue that Disciplinary punishment leads to self-policing by the populace as opposed to brutal displays of authority from the earlier eras. He utilized supervision, assessments, timetables and detailed attention to efficiency as tools for his studies of penology. Such ideas influenced the technology used in prisons such as Jeremy Benthams Panopitcon. The Panopticon, usually located in the center of a prison floor consisted of a single guard who could watch over many prisoners while remaining hidden. Ancient prisons have been replaced by clear and visible ones, but Foucault cautions that visibility is a trap. It is through this visibility, Foucault claims, that modern society exercises its controlling systems of power and knowledge. Increasing visibility leads to power located on an individualized level as shown by the possibility for judicial institutions to monitor individuals throughout their lives. Foucault suggests that a carceral continuum or a carceral archipelago runs through modern society, from the maximum security prison, through secure accommodation, probation, social workers, police, and so on into our daily working and home lives. All are joined together by the supervision (surveillance, application of social/moral norms of acceptable behavior) of some humans by others. Although the methods in which these sociological theorists approached penology, their ideas helped influence and change the way in which we [as society] view crime and the correlation it holds with punishment. These dominant theories shaped the evolution of American and European penal history which reflected the social, cultural and moral reforms of their times in relation to crime and the administration of punishment. Essay Two Punishment in Ancient European society was brutal and based primarily on private vengeance. Retaliation was violent and often community participation was encouraged. These tribal communities settled their conflicts through blood feuds held in public areas. These feuds, however, did not follow every crime. By 700 A.D. people mediated their offenses through fines. These were called bots (meaning betterment) and were paid to the offended party, while wites referred to fines paid to the King. These fines were highly discriminatory based on social-class structure. Penology practices then began to evolve as attempts were made to match the severity of offenses with the severity of the punishment itself such as in the Roman Justinian Code of 529 A.D. Punishment served as a way to uncover the truth behind crimes, sometimes through compurgation where witnesses were presented on behalf of the accused through trials by ordeal. Punishment was administered through torture if found guilty. The Early Middle Ages (700-1000) was defined as a power struggle between the church and society. The church was so powerful at the time that it had its own system of justice governed by the bishops and clergy. During this time, the church introduced the benefit of the clergy that gave protection from prosecution for church members and leniency to other related groups. Punishment was issued in the form of confinement rather than corporal punishment because the church believed that, such punishment would inevitably lead to the offenders despair, which impeded the ability to repent (15, BL). Only secular courts had the right to executions or any blood shed. Mutilation was popular to match the sanction with the crime (e.g. liars tongues cut out). Banishment and fines were still present. The Late Middle Ages (1100-1300s) signified a time of change in European history as the Church (sacred) power began to decline in daily social life, and with this, began the rise of the secular State pow er. Despite this decline, the church continued to use even more torturous, brutal punishment especially during the period of the Inquisition (13th-15th centuries) to weed out heretics. The end of the medieval period is marked within the social and economic changes brought on by the Mercantilist Era from 1400s-1700s. This era represented a decline of feudalism amongst society hierarchy, and gave birth to the rise of capitalism. Capitalism spread as globalization and commercial activity and trade increased. Power passed into the hands of the wealthy, known as the merchant class. This dissolution of feudalism and a once, agriculturally dominated society brought forward a number of displaced, non-productive people who were very poor called the vagabond poor. These people were focalized in crime and punishment, which gave rise to the understanding the conditions of this social class by learning how they became to be vagabonds. This questioning reflected the importance of work, for work was associated with morality. These vagabonds thus threatened society as a result they were exploited to working within the galley, workhouses and transportation. Transportation especiall y served as a means for states to solve crime problems by sending criminals away to the new colonies for indentured labor. There are several historical trends that can be identified from Ancient society to the end of the Medieval ages. First, there was a decline in direct participation by the community and by victims in primitive European societies. Secondly, there was a direct shift from private vengeance to church power during the Early Middle Ages. The Middle-Ages was a time where general deterrence was essential to preventing crime by instilling fear within the people after witnessing brutal, torturous penal practices. The Late Middle Ages through the Mercantilist Era was characterized by the growing popularity of state and secular justice over the church, and the rise of crime and punishment focused on labor. By the end of the 1700s, secular authorities controlled social classes by transporting criminals and vagabonds overseas to colonies, or by holding them in galleys and workhouses where they were incapacitated to extensive labor. Changing gears from Europe to Colonial America (1600-1790), the new nation was dominated by three primary social institutions which included church, family and community. Crime was viewed as sin and punishments mostly served religious ends, directly or indirectly in nature to reflect the laws and morals of the time. Colonial American society was centered on religion, where there was the mentality of, God wants people to behave a certain way, and it is the peoples job to set morality and justice. Punishment was administered for many common offenses and resulted in fines, shaming, whippings and sometimes exile. Executions were made public in order to have an educational purpose where community was intended to learn, however, intentional cruelty behind corporal punishment decline. The rise of the new nation could not have evolved without the presence of European Enlightenment Ideas in the American colonies. The prominence of human reason served as a tool to battle ignorance, superstition and tyranny targeted mainly in religious and hereditary aristocracy. Crime and punishment evolved to becoming a philosophy of understanding the offender. This gave birth to the first modes of classical criminology that assumed all people were rational beings that must be equated with a balance between crime and punishment. Ideas such as these enlightened moderation of punishment to focus on rationality and more importantly, efficiency. Punishment was concealed behind bars in prisons where criminals were to be held separate from society as a means of incapacitation. Early prisons and other penal institutions, such as the penitentiaries increased incarceration in America. Together the Colonial Ages and American Federalist period (1790-1830) marked a time of social reform where there was the suppression of the emotional purposes of punishments and execution to a newfound emphasis on their instrumental purpose instead. Criminals were to be understood rationally taking into account human reason, and crimes were to be administered fairly with a balance between offense and sanction. Punishment was morally defined. Punishment and reform in 19th century America (1830-1880s) prospered with the shift from prison-to-penitentiary. Societal influences included: alcoholism, gangs, and immigration. The Temperance and Abolitionist movement deemed alcohol use as moral failings/disease in society. Punishment revolutionized out of Enlightenment ideals that focused on democratization where society was governed by the people. Crime was spreading and was soon viewed as moral and social pathology. It was believed that crime could be combated with the help of penitentiaries. The goals of these institutions were to reform criminals through routine, surveillance and discipline. Blomberg and Lucken best define crime as: criminal activity was attributed to human interactions with a morally depraved environment (61). This penal ideology spread into Progressive America where crime and punishment were studied with science to understand criminality through biological, psychological and sociological reforms. From the Pr ogressive Movement into 20th century America, there flourished the proliferation of penal services (parole, probation, indeterminate sentencing, prison specialization min., med., max.). This ideology focused on social and moral reform as well by introducing reformatories (not vengeance), specializing and professionalization in prisons and a growing focus on juvenile and female offenders. Academic and medical questioning ruled criminology, the understanding of offenders and how to treat prisoners which lasted until the 1960s. The 1970s is best defined as a time of American Liberalism. Within society there were cultural changes taking placing as social activism and protest amongst all groups civil rights, women, prisoners, etc. Growing emphasis was put on prisoners issues and rights and through this we [society] made attempts to understand the internal and external relations of offenders with society. Decentralization emerged with the idea of Less is Better where importance was aimed at the criminal justice system through reforms such as net-widening that identified people who were at high risks to commit crimes, and deinstitutionalization of juveniles (not behavior that determines crime, age status instead). The 20th century was a change to rehabilitative and specific deterrence amongst criminals. From the 1980s to the present, crime increased as political and social turmoil grew in America. The war on crime that evolved with the staggering drug use of the 80s was counteracted with the conservative backlash by the government that installed harsher prison sentences focused on retribution, deterrence and incapacitation (three-strikes rule, mandatory minimums, etc). Increasingly so, social inequality is the underlying factor of high imprisonment rates amongst the poor and minorities. Privatization of prisons and companies led to a culture of greed that resulted in growing crime rates. This soon led to the collapse of the rehabilitative ideal into the era of get tough punishment and law and order punishment that was termed Neo-Conservative criminology. Essay Three Jails and prisons were among the first public structures built in colonial America. Besides serving as a place for emigrants, jails were an essential part of the system of bondage that existed in America. At a time where the dominating institutions consisted of the church, community and family, any crime committed was viewed as sin. Criminal activity was reflecting religiously onto the community as a whole. Executions were carried out for ordinary crimes other than murder, under local rather that state authority, and were made public. Punishments focused on retribution rather than understanding the crime, or the criminal. There began a shift from the 18th century to 1789 after the ideas of the Enlightenment reached the western world. The belief in human reason and rationality governed all aspects of life, especially penology. As a new nation emerged, penal practices changed to view criminals as rational beings, and an increased notion that there should be a balance between crime and punishment so it can be efficient. In regards to capital punishment, people felt it did not equate with the democratic ideals founded within our nation and it was in fact ineffective as a deterrent. From this point until the 1900s into the Progressive Era, crime changed and adapted according to the cultural changes that corresponded. Americas growing population boom, immigration increase, industrialization and urbanization were all factors in growing incarceration rates. Over time, prisons trended towards becoming more pervasive, more secure, and more permanent. In contemporary America there is a growing sense that the cost of fighting of crime, incarceration and rehabilitative services is spiraling out of control. There are more criminals, more courts, more prisoners and more anger as society focuses on the criminal as the cause for the economic collapse and downturn. The most recent historical factors that have led to todays conditions begin in the 1960s the age of disconnect where many significant changes to societal norms started. These included the civil rights movement, freedom of the individual, increased used of illegal substances, changing attitudes to sex and sex education, and in general, a focus on a more liberal and less-controlled societal model. During this period America experienced a debilitating military conflict (Vietnam), a break-down of the family unit as defined in separation statistics, and a core change in the role of women in society. At this time there was substantial focus upon prisoner rights, focus upon rehabilitative rather than punitive punishment ideals and a number of inside-prison demonstrations and even rioting against the methods of incarceration being used. Americas death penalty collapsed after the Furman v. Georgia decision where it was nullified and made unconstitutional. By the end of the 60s and 70s this era of liberalism was being pointed to as the cause of other significant societal problems crime being one of the most prominent. The 1980s witnessed a major shift back towards a more conservative America. The war on crime changed from one focusing on rehabilitative and (what caused) criminal activity to one that called for substantially-increased reliance on incarceration and an almost sole focus upon stopping the activities of criminals. Through a combination of sentencing guidelines (mandatory minimums, truth-in sentencing, three strikes) the aim was clear. By incarceration, clearly, the activities of the individual criminal were curtailed through incapacitation. There was little, if any concern, on rehabilitation and many argue upon humane treatment. Against this trend American society experienced large swings towards materialism, a lifestyle of financial improvement without concern for the morality of society as a whole (Boesky). These changes led America to become entrenched in a culture of greed where inequality between social and economic classes rose enormously, and so began the widespread politicization of criminal justice as crime was brought to political form. Beginning with the Reagan administration, the political goals, reflecting societys attitudes were quite evident. There were to be more incarcerations for more criminals for more offenses with greater sentences and less focus on parole provisions and rehabilitative treatments. These Get Tough penal philosophies exploded after the war on drugs invaded America as more people (many minorities) were being arrested and placed in prisons for much harsher sentences. Because of the increased prison population numbers, there was the need to specialize prisons based on the type of crime/the incarceration period imposed. This included a tiering, or separation of prisons into three divisions: minimum, medium and maximum facilities. The societal shift continued through the Bush (senior) administration and into the 1990s, where theories of penology are characterized by culture of control (BL). Control, in this context means: reinforcing more rigid guidelines for sentencing, more inflexible guidelin es towards rehabilitative treatments, and in general, a harsher, punitive mindset towards criminals. The changing economic climate has now introduced a move towards privatization. Privatization is a desire to outsource the management of prisons and criminals away from the state. Because the goals of private enterprise are profit-based, this suggests a shift to penology model with even less of a concern upon prisoners rights, rehabilitative treatments and any actions outside strict profit-based incarceration. Essay Four From colonial times to contemporary society, American penal history has undergone significant changes. Various penal innovations have been presented, some of which have had major impact on penology as a whole. Many of the thoughts and beliefs from Europes Age of Enlightenment carried onto the new-world, which helped birth the flourishing democratic ideals founded in the United States. The Enlightenment (18th century to 1789) was characterized by the belief in human reason and rationality. In regards to judicial reform, the goals of this era were to form a better world by using human reason to combat the negativities of ignorance, susperstition and tyranny that governed old monarchial practices. It also sought to target religious and hereditary aristocracy to create a more socially and economically equal society. The Enlightenment gave American penal policy and practices the push it needed to moderate punishment on the basis of rationality and efficiency. As a result most notably criminals were viewed as rational beings; punishment was to be efficient and logical, discipline changed from being public to conceal all factors which led to the early emergency of the prison and growing incarcer ation. The presence of enlightenment ideas in America influenced sociologists of the early 20th century such as Max Weber and Norbert Elias. Both sociologists studied the science of punishment by observing penal and other worldly changes from 19th century onwards leading towards rationality. Elias in particular held the notion that Western societies have become more civilized. This notion followed the trends of punishment, which he believed were reflected in the changing sensibilities in the civilizing evolution of Western culture. Despite there being a tension between moral imperative and bureaucratic management of the more highly privatized modern world, discipline was starting to be rationalized in a scientific, logical manner for means of justifying penal practices. Such social and moral reforms influenced the rise of one of the most prominent penal innovations the American penitentiaries of the 1800s. During such times crime was seen as a moral and social pathology. In the 1820s, two variants, the Pennsylvania System and the Auburn System competed for the role of best in the handling of the incarcerated population in America. The silent method of the Pennsylvania System required absolute silence, complete lock down in a solitary environment and produced mental problems at a rapid rate. It was espoused by the religious zeals such as the Quakers who felt that prisoners would be rehabilitated by that system. The belief was that silence and isolation helped criminals reflect on their crime alone. The Auburn System was seen as more cost effective because it required labor which offset the cost of prison housing. Auburn introduced uniforms, the lockstep and harsh punishment for minor infractions. The idea in the Auburn system was that silence, working together and discipline could yield reform in criminals. These two great penitentiaries were based on the ideas enveloped within each giv en region in America. In the North, rehabilitative ideals aimed to change/transform individuals, while the South adopted a convict lease system built on the slavery model that influenced penal reform to exploit labor to satisfy economic and political means. In truth, neither penitentiary created a model prisoner or one that entirely rehabilitated. The debate continues today between those that argue in long sentences and those that want reform. The importance in such an innovation was that it reflected the beliefs and ideals of democratization and moral reform of the 19th century. It exemplified the prisoner as a rational being that could and must be studied to explain criminality, diagnose and treat and then correct the criminal through rehabilitation. The second penal innovation grew out of former rehabilitative penal practices into the Progressive American Era (1880s-1930s) that theorized crime through biological, psychological and sociological factors for better understanding. These beliefs introduced positivist criminology, which asserted faith in the scientific study of criminals and crime through classification. In relation to penal ideology, it created reformatories, indeterminate sentencing, parole and probation. Punishment was less punitive and searched for the causes, treatment and corrections of criminals, especially juveniles. This movement led to the Juvenile Court Reform Movement. The Juvenile Court Movement lasted for nearly sixty years, beginning in 1900. Juveniles were seen as lost children who required guidance and whose crimes were subject to indeterminate sentencing to show leniency on the behalf of courts in hopes that treatment could help transform the characters of such offenders. This movement revolved around the rehabilitative ideal centralized in society as this time that claimed human behavior was a product of antecedent causes which could be identified, classified in accordance to specific scientific treatment, which could then be treated therapeutically. The importance behind the juvenile court movement is that it launched the specialization of penal practices. For example, the term prison guard expired and advanced to corrections officer. The term corrections emerged as professionalization and bureaucratization was introduced (as seen in Weber). Next, the treatment of offenders was individualized and penal services were broadened to accompany f or the various causes of criminal behavior, and was more accessible than ever before. Prison specialization led to the classification and division of these institutions into minimum, medium and maximum facilities governed by corrections officers with the aid of psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, vocational counselors, etc. Although the innovations of the juvenile reform movement and the progressive era were promising, by the late-20th century, America was headed towards decentralization. Criminologists and penologists created labeling theories that took focus away from the offender and onto the criminal justice system as an entity. Net-widening occurred in penal reforms that formed programs that identified people who were considered at high-risk to commit crimes. There began an academic focus on social control that influenced the contemporary penal model characterized by Get Tough punishment. Policy makers have implemented multiple-strategies approach to combat crime including: retribution, incapacitation (search for habitual offender), deterrence (escalation of penalties), restoration and rehabilitation (214). Present-day America has evolved to become a culture of control and greed (211, BL). Truth-in-Sentencing standards and Three-Strikes Laws were some of the few penal methods introduced in the 1980s to curb crime rates and put habitual offenders away for longer periods of time. Truth-in-sentencing refers to policies and legislation that aim to abolish or curb parole, so that convicts serve the period that they have been sentenced to. Three-Strikes law statutes enacted by state governments in the UHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_StatesS require the state courts to hand down a mandatory and extended period of incarceration to persons who have been convicted of a serious criminal offense on three or more separate occasions. Restorative justice has also been implemented recently that puts criminals up against the state, holding the criminal accountable through highly retributive means. These various methods comb