Analysis of primary Document.DOCUMENT 20.3 An account of the birth of Essay

Analysis of primary Document.DOCUMENT 20.3 An account of the birth of McDonald's - Essay Example There were no longer any complications. A hamburger was a fried piece of meat with bread. Cheese would cost more. It didn't matter who did the cooking it was set up the same way as though cooking became an assembly line. There were no longer waitresses or placing orders. It was to be fast and efficient. When they had their meeting, Mr Multimixer went back to his hotel room and conceived of a plan which would put McDonalds all over the country. He returned the next day and saw that the operations were the same as the day before. This was something that was new. No one cooked a hamburger with the same technique as the previous person. In 1956, they opened up the first stores, one of which was in Waukegan. They had problems and had to give discounts and send their most important people to different stores. It proved that without a good corporate headquarters and good training, the McDonalds' image of quality and service would never last. These are the basic elements to success. Opening up the first McDonalds', the corporate office realized that without the motto "QSC and V" (Quality, Service, Cleanliness and Value), they could not ask the franchisees to work with them and cook the same way. This was the first instance of name brand awareness. Early in the 1960's people knew, that they could go to any McDonald's and get the same food.

Conflict, Decision Making, and Organizational Design Research Paper

Conflict, Decision Making, and Organizational Design - Research Paper Example One way is to engage negotiation strategies. Negotiation can be observed everywhere in strong and subtle ways – in the market, haggling for the best prices, commissioning a young, talented artist for a new project; or closing a huge deal with a known company. There is more to negotiation than mere compromise. Negotiation is an interaction that occurs when 2 or more parties attempt to agree on a mutually acceptable outcome in a situation where their preferences for outcomes are negatively related. Two opposing positions come to a compromise. Lax and Sebenius (1986) add that in negotiation, a better outcome through joint action is achieved rather than when each party would act independently. The element of conflict also arises due to varying preferences and priorities of the different parties. Negotiation becomes a way to resolve such conflicts and compromise on a joint decision, usually, the middle ground stand. McGrath (1984) claims that negotiation is a mixed-motive process - the negotiating parties cooperate to reach an agreement and at the same time, compete to fulfill their own interests. From these definitions of negotiation, it is apparent that negotiators should possess several skills in order to be successful in getting what they bargain for. At the same time, negotiation entails multiple processes that occur simultaneously within each negotiating party such as decision making, research, critical judgment and effective communication, among others. Negotiating strategies involve bringing opposing parties together face to face wherein each individual or group brainstorm on their decisions for the negotiation. When each of the negotiating party becomes aware of the other’s proposed stand or idea, it then becomes the time for bargaining. In the case of business negotiations, this is the space between their reservation prices for the product or service offered and the assumed reservation price of the other party. They come up with their own BAT NA or their â€Å"best alternative to a negotiated agreement†, a strategy proposed by Fisher & Ury (1981). Thompson and Leonardelli (2004) explain that when the first cards set out the table during negotiations fail, then BATNA becomes a fall back alternative of negotiators. BATNA considers all options available for both parties including the reservation price, market information and aspiration levels of each negotiating party. Knowing the other party’s alternatives will help facilitate one’s decision-making process if these are compared with one’s own alternatives (Buelens & Van Poucke, 2004). 2. Determine how evidence-based management could be applied to the work environment you researched. Reay, Berta & Kohn (2009) defined evidence-based management as being â€Å"about making decisions through the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of four sources of information: practitioner expertise and judgment, evidence from the local context, a critical evaluation of the best available research evidence, and the perspectives of those people who might be affected by the decision† (as mentioned in Briner, Denyer, and Rousseau, 2009, p. 19) Applied in the work environment of health care and health insurance this definition would translate to upholding high standards of care. Integration of the best available evidences from thorough research and practice should deliver high quality patient-centered care considering the patient’

Marketing Plan For Farmish Frosty Milk Marketing Essay

Marketing Plan For Farmish Frosty Milk Marketing Essay The product I intend to launch is flavoured milk named as farmish frostys milk which is mainly aimed towards young children, housewives who are the main purchasers of domestic items. But due its different flavours frosty can also cater to adults like people working in offices, as a refreshing drink, even the male population, people who are into sports activities need a refreshing drink, this can add as an energy supplement. Most of the hassle using involved in making milk with different flavours initially would be eliminated with our special flavours already added to the market shelves. The new formula with which we have introduced our product encourages the entire household to indulge in buying the frosty bottle themselves irrespective of age or gender. Frosty has emerged as a brand which pays great heed to the value of great health to our society and has produced a brand which provides an individual with energy in no time. According to a research externally a 15 ml pack of strawberry tango provides enough energy at the end of a rigorous work out to provide the individual to jog for another half an hour. Gone are the days when an individual had to take four types of vitamins every day because now with the introduction Frosty will surely become: Frosty Your daily energy supplement Frosty low fat aims at targeting the diet conscious segment of the market whereby now it becomes a complete health solution for an individual. This variety aims at providing the dieters with alternate drinks. Before, the dieters had to look at expensive milk drinks that did not even provide the basic weight control and the energy provision requirement. Frosty flavoured milk drinks consider its customers as their factor of success therefore before the launch the company conducted focus group testing and also included children in this test, as they are also a key customer group. 3. STRATEGIC PLAN AND FOCUS 3.1 Vision Statement We have just launched our company few days back in U.K and it is forecasted that the consumers will react to this product positively, reason being that the consumer has always looked for quality taste and flavoured milk, although exists in the market, those which are imported items as well as local, but with our differentiated features and natural extracts from fresh fruits and constant quality checks, we are confident that we will take up the position of market leaders in this particular product category. We forecast that frosty milk will be much consumed by place and people like: Schools Shops Supermarkets Homes Recreational parks Airports Such places are in dire need of products that provide the end result instantly; hence frostys flavoured milk, as the name says it all will provide instant energy to the tired and exhausted travellers or small kids who are traveling may need a refreshing drink. Travellers for instance, may want something that boosts their energy level. At the moment our forecasts tell us that we are just concentrating to the upper middle class and the middle class but later on we will also cater to the lower middle class and lower class, once we generate enough money to meet our costs. 3.2 Mission Statement The company aims to become a key competitor in the flavoured milk industry by being an innovative and pioneering organization, conducting business with sense of responsibility and pride, keeping customers satisfaction as a prime objective. The apprehensible standards to be set to deal with our customers, governing agencies and suppliers by being honest, fair and principled. 3.3 Goals and Objectives 3.3.1 Goals Being categorized as a market challenger we have the advantage of trying new techniques, which have not been tried before. This means that through innovative and creative brainstorming, goals set can be achieved 3.3.2 Objectives Specific In order to achieve the position of leader in the industry and hit a targeted profit we are looking to have a well enough business model / plan. Measurable After calculating sales, expenses and profit margin we assume to make some money at the end of particular period as business have to make some money out of it. So we forecast about our business in that month for the upcoming time. Achievable As every company have some Goals and objectives , we also want to achieve something out of our business. For example : In return we are looking for  £2000 2500 per month. Realistic Every business have some realistic goals that is achievable too. For example if some want to make  £5000 of profit in certain week. Yes , they can if they have some realistic business plan / model. Time related If we are looking to do business of about  £30,000 40,000 a month, for that we have to give some time in order to create such strategies that make our production fast as well as the distribution channel more efficient and effective. 3.4 Core Competencies / Competitive Advantage The key success factors that Frosty has are the USPs which make it different from the other fruit milk drinks. Firstly the experience that the company has in the juice industry has helped the company as it has the information regarding the beverage market. Apart from this the company has developed some really unique flavours, which promise to give the customer a real worth for their money. The flavors are a blend of fresh fruit and some ingenious recipes. These recipes are kept secret. The pre-product launch survey that we had carried out in different households and areas of the city proved that our Frosty provides highest energy and taste and boosts the individuals strength. 4. SITUATION ANALYSIS 4.1 Evaluation of Marketing Tools and Techniques In order to evaluate marketing tools and techniques I adopt the following three techniques Porters five forces. SWOT Analysis Marketing Audit Bargaining power of suppliers Local suppliers are mostly threatened as there is possibility from well settled retailers to import the same product from any foreign country in well enough quantity to shatter the market. In our case this kind of things may happen but we could able to stand in the market. Bargaining power of buyers In this high technological and fast moving environment most of the customers have well enough knowledge about market and that products so most of the time they But in our case this is not the problem as we are the common individual to introduce this product as we can tackle this task. SWOT ANALYSIS: Strengths: Frosty flavoured milk will be the first flavoured milk drink of the country that will be wholly produced by local raw materials, this has been achieved through the stronger ties that the company has with its local suppliers which will be providing the company with fruits that will be processed in the Frosty processing plant. As far as the milk is concerned Frosty also has an edge over its competitors, as it owns the largest network of dairy farms. One of the strengths of the company is also its most successful product of fruit juices. WEAKNESS: One of the major weaknesses of Frosty flavoured milk drinks that affect its competitive position is the low brand recall. We have just launched the product and heavy spending has been incurred in order to encourage buyers to buy more and potential buyers to try the product for the first time. We certainly know that in order to strengthen the products position the name of the product has to be on every buyers tongue. Opportunities: Frosty flavoured milk drinks will be packaged and will allow the company to take advantage of the growth opportunities of around not just some areas but all over the U.K. The company will be selling in ready to carry packs that will be made by recyclable plastic and tetra pack special packaging material called T-550 which keeps the product safer for longer. This package suits the lifestyle of not just children and teenagers but also sportsmen. Another key opportunity that the company sees is that the spending patterns of the people are changing from spending less to spending more. This means that Frosty will be targeting a market, which is spending more money due to more disposable income. Threats: The threat however that we face is that we are investing in the fast moving consumer goods market and we see that in the future due to excess competition extreme measures may have to be taken in order to survive the cut-throat competition. Another threat that Frosty faces is the threat of other beverages that may position themselves as being in competition with Frosty. So in this case frosty would have to position itself safely in order to survive indirect competition from companies such as Coke and Pepsi. MARKETING AUDIT It Involves companys analysis in both aspects internally and externally Internal External environment of the company Internal Audit: PROMOTION It includes determining the combination of tools that is advertising, publicity, personal selling, and sales promotions. Also we can determine, how to measure effectiveness, the image to pursue, the choice of media the format of messages if ads should be timed throughout the year or during peak periods or not. Promotion is any form of communication used to inform, persuade and/or remind people about an organizations or individual goods, services, image and ideas. Promotion planning is systematic decision making relating to all aspects of an organization or individual communications efforts. Since Farmish is introducing Flavored Frosty Milk, customer must first be informed about the product and its attributes. After creating awareness, promotion can be used to develop favourable attributes of the flavoured milk. With an audience category, Farmish can identify to opinion leaders, people who influence others. In addition, it should also fully understand and use the mechanisms of word of mouth communication, the process by which people express their opinion and product related experience to another person. Farmishs promotional plan will lay maximum stress on Frosty and its attributes such as excellent quality and taste. Its main objective would be of moving consumers from awareness to purchase. It will also seek to communicate its overall image of the market innovator, introducing different enticing flavours. However, the main purpose of promotional activities will be aimed at creating an image in the consumers mind that when they consume the milk they will be refreshed and will enjoy the alluring flavour. PRICE The aim is to give good value for money through good competitive prices, which result in consumer satisfaction. The pricing objective is to optimize the profits of the company and to get the return on investment. The price of the milk is lower than the price of foreign brands with comparable quality and the same quantity. Although local brands cost less but the quality offered by Frostys is greater. Pricing Method: The basic method for pricing the product is cost-plus method or strategy where a fixed percentage is added to the cost in order to determine the price at which the product will leave the company. Pricing Strategies: Primarily two pricing strategies are used in order to achieve the overall marketing objectives and the pricing objectives: Competition-Based Pricing: In order to meet competition it is essential that prices should be competitive as compared to other brands of similar quality. Penetration Pricing: This pricing is done in a way so as to attract consumers to buy the product that will enable the company to penetrate into the market and gain market share. One way to do this is by lowering the pick-up price of the product, which makes it more easily reachable for the consumer. Introducing smaller bottle sizes with less weight can lower pick-up price. Retail Prices of Farmish Frosty Milk 150 ml bottle  £0.40 P 250 ml bottle  £0.90 P 1 litre pack  £1.40 P SALES PROMOTION Sales promotion involves paid marketing communication activities that stimulate consumer purchases and dealer effectiveness.. The 3 main objectives of sales promotion is to, Generate trial and repurchase, Build market share and, To build brand image and positioning. Advertising would create a specific image in the mind of the consumer i.e. positioning. Similarly sales promotion will be carried out in a way so as to further the quality perception of the product. Sales promotion helps attract customer traffic. For example, if Farmish would offer free samples on trial in stores to draw customers. Since Farmishs Frostys Milk is a consumer product, their success depends upon satisfaction, trust and goodwill. They believe, they can best serve the needs following a consistent, fair and sensitive program of consumer communication. For that reason we set up a help line 0800-8067840 DISTRIBUTIONS Distribution decisions include determining whether to sell via intermediaries or directly to consumers, how many outlets to sell through and whether to control or cooperate with other channel members. We planned to distribute the products on our various outlets covering all over the United Kingdom. To make sure that the customer gets the milk in its original premium form, therefore we focus to distribute Frostys flavoured milk twice a week amongst the outlet. DISTRIBUTION CHART FLOW FOR FARMISH FROSTYS MILK Warwickshire Warehouses Distributors Retailers Wholesalers Consumers Personal Sales Force Institutions External Audit : Competitors: Frosty flavoured milk does not consider itself as extension to the segment consuming milk. But it sees itself as a key competitor in the flavoured milk drink industry. Our competitors are currently well settled in the market and have a major share of the market. With the launch of Frosty flavoured milk it will come in direct competition with the local and foreign rivals such as Vanilla flavoured Milk by ASDA, Yazoo drink by Friesland NESQUIK by Nestle. Frosty aims to position itself as a brand with a different image than its competitors. Frosty thinks that it should make sure that a fun image of the product is created in the minds of the customers. Frosty through its creative slogans wants to create this image. Our company considers Yazoo as the market leader in the flavoured milk industry with a high market share of the urban markets and an innovative approach of providing the customers with the new tastes. The product that we launch will have a similar approach to that of Yazoo in providing the customers with a range of totally new flavours. Nestle is as market challenger to Yazoo and is giving Yazoo a tough time with respect to increasing market share. If the leader offers a price advantage then Frosty would also do the same. It goes with any changes in packaging. Through the companies sources it has attained information that suggest that the Yazoo is planning to launch its flavoured milk in family size bottles. This information is enough to launch a major offensive against this move. This means that by the time Yazoo would launch its family size packs we would be already in the market and may even have an advantage of claiming the idea as our very own Demographics: The demographic environment mainly provides a brand structure for our company to place our product. In other words, it greatly facilitates in the market positively for products and determining its possible competitors. Almost many social classes consume flavoured milk; age and gender factors do not have a significant impact on this milk. And it could be somewhat broadly and easily categorized. Individual belonging to all sexes, and ages consume our milk. The Frosty Flavoured Milk is best been suitable for the following: Young Children Teenagers Married woman for small children Adults Old-age people Psychographics: There are people who belong to middle and upper middle-class. Modern time-conscience, busy people, students, and children who want to work hard and believe in achieving their goals, our Frosty Flavoured Milk will be source of satisfaction, energy and refreshment, and more importantly convenience and timeliness on their busy lines. The astringent and hygienically maintained flavours give its refreshing quality. Many people are not aware of the criteria of Mutual-Drinking which applies to Frosty flavoured Milk that has good quality and flavour balance, and does not need any artificial aroma. 4.2 Company Analysis Focus: The companys main focus is to attain the position of a leader itself in the Industry. Culture Our reputation for quality, taste and nutrition is best and we are also being trust by our consumers on what we do. We are also looking forward to get delighted by our consumers because of the new and innovative products that we have yet to create. Strengths As far as the milk is concerned Frosty also has an edge over its competitors, as it owns the largest network of dairy farmers Weaknesses One of the major weaknesses of Frosty flavoured milk which also affect its competitive position is due to having the low brand recall and in order to strengthen the products position the name of the product has to be on every buyers tongue Market share Currently in this highly competitive environment we are having 10-12% of market share but our aim is to acquire at least 30%-40% of the flavoured milk market share by the year 2011. The high margin would attain us the desirable market share and have all the possibilities to make our way towards the top ranking in the market. 4.3 SWOT Analysis Internal Environment of our company Frosty flavoured milk will be the first flavoured milk drink of the country that will be wholly produced by local raw materials, this has been achieved through the stronger ties that the company has with its local suppliers which will be providing the company with fruits that will be processed in the Frosty processing plant. One of the major weaknesses of Frosty flavoured milk drinks that affect its competitive position is the low brand recall The external environment of our company The company will be selling in ready to carry packs that will be made by recyclable plastic and tetra pack special packaging material called T-550 which keeps the product safer for longer Another threat that we are facing is from other beverages that may position themselves as being in competition with Frosty. So in this case frosty would have to position itself safely in order to survive indirect competition from companies such as Coke and Pepsi 4.4 Industry Analysis 4.4.1 Competitor Analysis Market position Farmish Frosty is producing flavoured milk; thus, we are competing with all the players in the. Milk industry like Countrys life organic milk, Nestle Milk flavoured milk brands like FRIJJ, Milka, Rose Milk etc. Hence our competition is highly existing and established milk brands in the market. Farmish Frosty hopes to position its flavoured milk in a totally different perspective than that of its competitors by offering convenience for all household individuals. Market shares SWOT 4.4.2 Collaborators Subsidiaries, joint ventures, and distributors, etc. 4.4.3 Customer Analysis Number Type Value drivers Decision process Concentration of customer base for particular products 4.4.4 Porters Five Forces 4.4.4 Porters Five Forces 4.5 Climate/Environmental Analysis Macro-environmental STEEPLE analysis: Social and cultural or demographic Technological Economic and Supply/Demand Environmental (natural) Political Legal Ethical 5. MARKET-PPRODUCT FOCUS 5.1 Marketing and Product Objectives 5.2 Market Segmentation Target Market In order to approach our target consumers, Farmish divided the market out in different segments. These segments were taken to be the potential markets having the most return. Segmenting was done under the following core elements. Geographic Segmentation: In the geographic segmentation, we first went for the population factor. We started our launch from the main parts of UK. We launched frostys milk first in London where we aimed at the renowned retail stores and super stores like Asda Tescos and then in Manchester and Birmingham.. This was a good start as we have gained sales instantly. After only a matter of two to three months we gained 15% market share in London. Greater market share in London was due to the cosmopolitan city. Demographic Segmentation: In the demographic segmentation, our primary concern was the Age factor. In that, we are willing to address the youngsters from the age of 5 and above. Usually milk is associated with young children, so in our initial launch we targeted the young children and also the teenagers. Other than that, we are also concerned for the family life cycle; we chose families, which were primarily young married couples with young children as our potential targets. We preferred these families to belong to the upper and middle classes. We also preferred educated people with good buying power. Income was another factor we took into consideration, as we are not focusing on the rural or suburban areas, but more on the urban cities, mainly the upper middle class segment. As the population distribution and usage pattern shows that flavoured milk as a product is mainly consumed in the upper class, upper middle and middle -middle class. So frosty will also penetrate in this particular segment with different marketing programs. Individuals who greatly value quality, convenience and time, those who are trend following, energetic and outgoing also come into our target as our proposition. The family life cycle limits should also be increased to cover all the following categories as well. Bachelors Young married Young married with young children And families with young children Behavioural Segmentation: Consumers justify the consumptions of milk for the benefit of releasing fatigue and lethargy, as milk gives an individual a feeling of refreshness and instant energy, in a way recharging a person. By behavioural factors we can easily depict what sort of consumers would be best fitted for our flavoured milk. It is of interest to note that the role of flavoured milk can vary differently during different parts of the day categorized as follows: Breakfast Drink: Our milk will be aimed towards the morning drinkers of milk, usually school going children, as energy drink. It serves an energizer and with our special flavours, given the amount of energy they bring, using strawberries, mango, vanilla etc, add to a part of a young child growth and is also good for the body as a whole. Is can also be used by teenagers, as the trends today are changing and much of our culture is being influenced by the western culture and we find that having milk and juices in the morning as at breakfast time has become a normal norm. Mid-Evening Drink: during the evenings frostys milk can also be used as an instant energizer to those individuals who are into sport activities, people who do vigorous exercises. Over here, we can even segment on the basis of health conscious people who want to maintain a healthy diet and cut on high fat food, for that as well, we have our separate line for low fat flavoured milk, which comes in all flavours. So clearly we can say that our product will be catering to both males and females who play sports. The only difference being that males want something refreshing to quench their thirst and females want an energizer drink which is low in fat, so out flavoured milk with cater to the needs of both the genders. Many school going children would also want the milk as part of their after play, coming to their mothers and asking for a cold glass of flavoured milk. Night Drink: can be used to relieve oneself from the daylong tension and fatigue. Even adults can have this drink before going to bed, as it tends to soothe ones mind with the days long work. We can segment our markets on the basis of consumer usage rate, those individuals who are more loyal to flavored milk can be targeted with more diligence and we can use appropriate strategies to attract potential consumers towards our product. Psychographic Segmentation: In the Psychographic segmentation, people who are conscious of their life styles should also be brought in the target market. The concept of leading a casual life with flavoured milk as a daily refreshment drink should be introduced. Flavoured milk should be made a substitute for other drinks such as juices and fizzy drinks for the consumers who are food value conscious. With our frostys milk being introduced in tetra packs as well as cans it would add to the lifestyle of the elite class, and would also be easy to carry around for young children as a snack pack for their lunch periods. 5.4 Point of Difference Because of our close ties with our suppliers and our own dairy farms the acquiring of the raw materials is easy and cheap which gives us an edge over the competitors and gives us an advantage in pricing our products this makes that we can lower our price and still gain the same advantage 5.5 Positioning

Lord Of The Flies - Ralph Monologue Essay -- English Literature

Lord Of The Flies - Ralph Monologue Should never have let this happen. Should never have let this happen. ===================================================================== (Ralph shaking his head) Jack’s an idiot, bloody idiot. Divide and rule. What does he think he’s playing at? Does nobody want to go home? I miss my family. Don’t they miss theirs? I just can’t understand (sighs). What’s wrong with him? It’s his fault we’re still here on this stupid island. He should have watched the fire like we said, not disappear off into the jungle. Showing off, â€Å"I cut the pig’s throat.† So what. Who cares! We can all do that if we want to, anyone can be a hunter. It’s so pointless, he did it on purpose we were nearly there. He did it on purpose, I know he did. (Ralph quietens down momentarily appearing thoughtful) If only Jack had done as he was told we would never missed that ship. Stupid face painting, do that at six not at his bloody age. (Kicks the ground in exasperation, throws his hands around his head grabbing his hair) When we worked as a team, cou...

English Importance in the Next Few Years

The topic under discussion is that â€Å"compare the importance of English to the other major languages of the world and then tell whether it will be able to sustain its superiority in the next hundred years†. I am for the topic. A language is a systematic means of communication by the use of sounds or conventional symbols. It is the code we all use to express ourselves and communicate to others. It is a communication by word of mouth. It is the mental faculty or power of vocal communication. It is a system for communicating ideas and feelings using sounds, gestures, signs or marks. Language therefore remains potentially a communicative medium capable of expressing ideas and concepts as well as moods, feelings and attitudes and thus makes humans different from other living beings. The latest and the most advanced discoveries and inventions in science and technology are being made in the universities located in the United States of America where English language is the means of scientific discourse. The importance of English as a spoken language began as a result of the colonial era, when European powers took to the seas in order to find new lands and natural resources. The effects of that time can still be felt in the number of English speakers in India, select parts of Asia and Africa, and North America. The influence of English grew stronger in the 20th century, with the increased mobility of populations, the growth of the United States as an economic power, and the presence of international media in everyday life. As of 2010 there are fewer native speakers of English than Chinese, though English is spoken in more places, and more people speak English as a second language. The importance of English in business comes from its use as a lingua franca, or a means of communication between speakers of two different languages. Many of the world's top languages function this way, including French, Russian and Arabic, but English still has the widest reach. A South Korean businessman traveling to meet the head of an Argentinean conglomerate in Germany will expect the common language for all to be English. Aside from the United Nations, many other international organizations operate in English. After World War II, key financial institutions were created in English, including the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. The World Trade Organization and a variety of other UN affiliates such the World Food Program and the World Health Organization use English in spoken and written communication. Five of the largest broadcasting companies (CBS, NBC, ABC, BBC and CBC) transmit in English, reaching across the world through satellite television and local holdings. Estimates for the number of people using the Internet in English lie only slightly ahead of users in Chinese, but well ahead of Spanish and other major languages. In the publishing industry, English is also well ahead: 28 percent of books published annually are in English, and the market for books in English for second language speakers is growing. English currently dominates in science and technology, a position that it took over from German after World War I. Scientific journals publish in English, and many researchers, especially in physics, chemistry and biology, use English as their working language. The historical circumstances of India (having been ruled by the British for over two centuries) have given the Indians an easy access to mastering English language, and innumerable opportunities for advancement in the field of science and technology. Many Indians have become so skilled in English language and have won many international awards for creative and comparative literatures during the last few years. Sometime ago, an Indian author, Arundhati Roy, won the prestigious booker prize for her book â€Å"The God of Small Things†. Her book sold lakhs of copies all over the globe. According to the 2004 World Factbook, 49 countries list English as their official language, not counting the United States and the United Kingdom, which do not list any official language but use predominantly English. In 2001, a poll of the 189 member countries in the United Nations showed that 120 of them preferred to use English to communicate with other Over the years, English language has become one of our principal assets in getting a global leadership for books written by Indian authors and for films made by Indians in English language. A famous Indian movie maker Shekhar Kapoor’s film â€Å"Elizabeth† has got several nominations for Oscar Awards. It does not require any further argument to establish the advantage English language has brought to us at the international level. English language comes to our aid in our commercial transactions throughout the globe. English is the language of the latest business management in the world and Indian proficiency in English has brought laurels to many Indian business managers. English is a means not only for international commerce; it has become increasingly essential for inter-state commerce and communication. English language comes to our aid in our commercial transactions throughout the globe. English is the language of the latest business management in the world and Indian proficiency in English has brought laurels to many Indian business managers. English is a means not only for international commerce; it has become increasingly essential for inter-state commerce and communication. Some of the states of India are witnessing popular increase in public demand for teaching of English language from the primary classes. Realizing the importance, recently, the Minister of Indian Railways, Laloo Prasad Yadav, demands teaching of English language in schools. The great demand for admission in English medium schools throughout the country is a testimony to the attraction of English to the people of India. Many of the leaders, who denounce English, send their own children to English medium schools. Many of the schools in the country have English as the sole or additional medium of instruction. A language attracts people because of the wealth of literature and knowledge enshrined in it. English poses no danger to Indian languages. The Indian languages are vibrant and are developing by the contributions of great minds using them as their vehicle of expression. English is available to us as a historical heritage in addition to our own language. We must make the best use of English to develop ourselves culturally and materially so that we can compete with the best in the world of mind and matter. English language is our window to the world. English language is one tool to establish our viewpoint. We can learn from others experience. We can check the theories of foreigners against our experience. We can reject the untenable and accept the tenable. We can also propagate our theories among the international audience and readers. We can make use of English to promote our worldview and spiritual heritage throughout the globe. Swami Vivekananda established the greatness of Indian view of religion at the world conference of religions in Chicago in 1893. He addressed the gathering in impressive English. Many spiritual gurus have since converted thousands of English people to our spirituality by expressing their thought and ideas in masterful English. English has thus become an effective means of promoting Indian view of life, and strengthening our cultural identity in the world. CONCLUSION: Generally, Standard English today does not depend on accent but rather on shared educational experience, mainly of the printed language. Present-day English is an immensely varied language, having absorbed material from many other tongues. It is spoken by more than 300 million native speakers, and between 400 and 800 million foreign users. It is the official language of air transport and shipping; the leading language of science, technology, computers, and commerce; and a major medium of education, publishing, and international negotiation. For this reason, scholars frequently refer to its latest phase as World English. Thus English is evitable. Thus English will never loose its superiority even in the next hundred years,

Research Evaluation Tables Essay

Through this study, Henri intended to determine whether dynamism in performance measurement systems was appropriate for any change an organization underwent, or if there were circumstances where revision to the performance measurement systems were not needed.  Henri also intended to determine if the link between dynamic performance measurement systems and the performance of an organization were contingent on a level of internal or external change. The third goal of this study was to add additional data on this subject to the scant body of research available on the dynamism of performance measurement systems. | Research Methods| Henri used quantitative/confirmatory analysis in this study. Henri used a mail survey to gather data. The survey used seven point Likery-type scales to assess changes to the performance measurement systems, to determine innovativeness and learning orientation of the organization and organizational performance. All of the tools used in the questionnaire were validated in advance. | Audience| Henri focused this study on two main audiences. The first was to provide information to manager, executives, and professionals charged with running organizations. Henri also intended to add additional research for managerial accounting literature. | Research Evaluation| The researchers in this study used Likert Scale questions to assess performance measurement at the organization. Likert Scales are frequently used when a researcher wants to measure attitudes about a certain topic (Plano Clark & Criswell, 2010). The researchers also demonstrated the validity of the study by having experts in the field test the instrument in three different groups and provide feedback (Plano Clark & Criswell, 2010). One problem with this study was the response rate was only 24 percent which increases the risks of bias in the study (Bowling, 2005). This study is written to cover the topic of how performance measurement should change, and when, which is a practical topics for managers to review. The overall conclusion of this study found organizations willing to periodically review performance measures have better overall organizational performance. This information would be beneficial to my agency because we use performance measures to make decisions in the organization. Evaluating performance measures to ensure they are still applicable to our work will allow us to adjust performance measures to increase overall organizational performance. McCoy and Kinyua completed a cross-sectional study reviewing General Find disbursements over a 12-month period. McCoy and Kinyua chose to look at funding instead of expenditures because they determined it was more accurate and completed. The researchers looked at the population of the countries, the income levels, government funding and also funding sources to identify countries in need of disbursements from the Global Fund more than others. The data was all collected from spreadsheets that were found on the Global Fund website. The date was prepared and present in text, tables and charts. | Audience| This study was intended for executives and decision makers linked to the Global Fund, government officials, donors and health care professionals in the countries receiving money from the Global Fund. | Research Evaluation| This study took the information from public documents located on the Global Fund website. The complete information could be analyzed and because it was factual information and not interview data there were fewer opportunities for bias in the data (Plano Clark & Criswell, 2010). The esearchers in this study followed the process of quantitative data analysis (Plano Clark & Criswell, 2010). A significant problem with this study and the recommendations are the external factors in each country which guide leaders in how they decide to spend funds obtained. Each country is different and many of the countries served have had documented corruption problems which could influence the reliabilit y of the information. This information and process used is useful for the policy makers the study was intended for, but for practical management it is not specific in making recommendations for changes. This process could be used in more practical ways if the planning led to gathering data specific to the situation. The process of determining how to disburse funds depending on need could be useful in my organization. We have a fund to provide financial assistance to patients that are not able to pay for services. Looking at this study, it is important that we develop some methods to determine need based on other funding sources to more objectively determine funding.

Hard Rock Café

Hard Rock Cafà © Hard Rock Cafà © is a chain of restaurants that was founded by Peter Morton and Isaac Tigrett in 1971. Though they were Americans, the first Hard Rock Cafà © was in London, England and it was a theme restaurant that had it walls covered with rock and roll memorabilia. However, it started to expand in 1982 into other countries like Canada France and the US. In 1995 it ventured into the hotel and casino business with their first casino in Las Vegas (Grushkin, Selvin, Routhier, 2001).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Hard Rock Cafà © specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Hard Rock Cafà © has invested heavily in its product design process. This is because customer preferences and needs are constantly changing and they have had to address these changing preferences to maintain a competitive edge in the restaurant and hotel market. Due to its global network the company is in a better position to adapt quickly in response to the changing tastes and preferences, especially due to their theme venture. Their strategic managers have had to incorporate technology in the restaurant’s service delivery, such as the use of the internet in advertising and also in making orders and reservations for their high end products. This has boosted them in maximizing customer satisfaction, as convenience is key in customer service (Heizer Render,1996). The company has adopted the differentiation, cost leadership and rapid response strategies in their product development. This is to make sure that it stays relevant in the market by being different from other restaurants, being cost sensitive and incorporating customer needs into their products as soon as they arise. The decision makers have always taken pride in having close relationships with both their suppliers and customers hence the need to consult with them during product design. The Hard Rock Cafà © managers have a strict policy on the observation of safety , health and hygiene regulations in their decision making, and therefore, all products that they design are in line with these product principles. Hard rock cafà © products lifecycle is greatly influenced by customer preferences. They start by consultation to identify the prevailing customer needs in the market and the cycles end when the sales of the particular product plummet such that it is no longer profitable to continue producing it (Blythe, 2008). Their products go through four stages in their lifecycles, which are; introduction, growth, maturity, and the decline stage. When a need is identified in the market and a product is designed it is introduced in the companys restaurants and if customers like it, it is further popularized to boost its markets growth. With a stable market at maturity, the restaurants reap maximum profits, but these reduce as the product goes through the decline stage where sales plummet.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let 's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Hard Rock Cafà © considers different issues in its product development to ensure that it maintains a competitive advantage in the market. For instance, the decision makers have been forced to modify their menu from the basic burgers, beverages and fries, to other high end items that increase customer satisfaction. Also, with the current trend of healthy eating they have had to come up with diet meals for the section of the market that is health sensitive. As noted by Blythe, (2008), the company has always ensured that it conditions its product design process according to the customers needs. To ensure that they maintain customer loyalty the company has also tailored their product design in a way that ensures maximum efficiency in service delivery. Their products have to take the shortest time possible to produce so as to quickly meet customer needs especially at peak hours. The management has ob served that certain peak periods generate a lot of customer orders, and in their bid to maximize on customer loyalty, they have to conveniently serve these peak time orders efficiently. For instance there are more rock and roll enthusiasts during the holidays hence an in influx of customers during this time. References Blythe, J. (2008). Consumer behavior. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning. Grushkin, P., Selvin, J. and Routhier, S. (2001). Treasures of the Hard Rock Cafe: The Official Guide to the Hard Rock Cafe Memorabilia Collection. Winnetka, Illinois: Rare Air Media, Heizer, J. and Render, B. (1996). Production operations management. Prentice Hall series in decision sciences. New York: Prentice Hall.

The Outsiders1 essays

The Outsiders1 essays In this book analysis, about the book The Outsiders by S. E. Hinton I will discuss character and plot development, as well as the setting, the authors style and my opinions about the book. In this part of the analysis I will give some information about the subjects of the book, and about the author. The author wrote the story when she was just 16 years old, in the 1950s. The book was successful, and it was sold, and still being sold, in many copies as a young adults novel. There was a movie made about it, and today there are still many schools that use this book in junior high and high schools for English classes. There were plays made about the book too. The Outsiders is about a gang. They live in a city in Oklahoma. Ponyboy Curtis, a 14 year old greaser, tells the story. Other characters include Sodapop and Darry, Ponyboy's brothers, Johnny, Dallas, and Two- Bit, that were also gang members and Ponyboy's friends. This story deals with two forms of social classes: the socs, the rich kids, and the greasers, the poor kids. The socs go around looking for trouble and greasers to beat up, and then the greasers are blamed for it, because they are poor and cannot affect the authorities. I hope you would enjoy and learn something about the book from reading this analysis. Plot Development The plot development in the book, The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton, was easy to follow. In this part of the book analysis I will give some more details about the plot development. There were no hooks or hurdles in the beginning of the book, the first sentence starts right away with the plot-without any forewords. This is the beginning of the first sentence: When I stepped out into the bright sunlight from the darkness of the movie house... (page 9). As you can see, it goes straight to the point without any prologues or any kind of introduction. The plot development in the middle of the story was sensible and easy to...

Historical SAT Percentiles New SAT 2016, 2017, and 2018

Historical SAT Percentiles New SAT 2016, 2017, and 2018 SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips If you took the new SAT in 2016, 2017, or 2018, you might be wondering what percentile your score is in. Is a 700 on Math in 2016 the same as a 700 in Math in 2018? How much do percentile scores change from year to year? In this article, I'll explain what new SAT percentile scores are and how they've changed over time. I'll also provide percentiles for SAT combined and section scores for 2016, 2017, and 2018. What Are SAT Percentile Scores? Your SAT percentile score tells you how well you did compared to other students who took the SAT. If you scored in the 97th percentile, then you scored higher than 97% of the people who took the test. If you scored in the 50th percentile, you did better than 50% of the people who took the test. Every year, the College Board determines that year's SAT percentile scores based on how college-bound high school seniors that year scored on the SAT. The higher the percentile your SAT score is in, the better you scored compared to other high school seniors. Special Note: Nationally Representative Sample Percentiles vs. SAT User Percentiles On your score report, you'll see information about two different kinds of percentiles: Nationally Representative Sample Percentiles and SAT User Percentiles. For this article, when we talk about percentiles we'll be exclusively referring to SAT User Percentiles, which are based on only actual SAT scores of students in the classes of 2016-2018 who took the new SAT. Read this article to find out more about the differences between the two percentile types on your SAT score report. Do Percentile Scores Change? In the past, SAT scores stayed pretty much at the same percentile, year over year. For instance, on the old SAT, a score of 1880 was in the 87th percentile for 20, 2012, 2013, 2014, and 2015. That SAT percentile scores haven't changed much over time is intentional- the whole idea behind the SAT scoring system is that colleges can know that a student who got a 1880 SAT score in 2010 performed about the same as a student who got a 1880 SAT score in 2006 or 2015. If an 1880 was in the 80th percentile in 2010 and the 95th percentile in 2015, the scores would be meaningless for comparison purposes on their own. Because the SAT in its current format has only been administered for a few years, however, new SAT scores aren't quite as tied to specific percentiles. As an example, a 1280 new SAT score was in the 83rd percentile in 2016, 86th percentile in 2017, and 84th percentile in 2018. The biggest differences changes in percentiles on the new SAT happened for students who scored between 860 and 1200, with the same score differing by as many as six percentile points between 2016 and 2018 (for instance, a 950 was in the 25th percentile in 2016 and 31st percentile in 2018). As the new SAT is administered to more students over more years, these differences will no doubt shrink, making it easier to compare the same scores. For now, though, if you're scoring in the 860-1200 range, you can expect the percentile of your score to shift by up to six percentile points compared to past years. How Should You Use This Info and Why Does It Matter? Because the same SAT scores have had such varying percentiles in the last couple of years, your percentile score is the easiest way to figure out how well you did on the SAT. If you scored higher than 50 percent of test-takers, then you're above average; if you scored higher than 75 percent of test-takers, then you did very well indeed. When you apply to college, however, you're not being compared to all students who took the SAT, but to all students who took the SAT and are applying to that school. To help students figure out how they stack up against past successful applicants, colleges usually publicly post 25th and 75th percentile scores of admitted students. If you want to be a competitive candidate for a school, your target SAT score should be around or above a school's 75th percentile score. On a section level, percentiles can help you put your scores in context. It might seem like you're doing about equally well on Evidence-Based Reading and Writing and Math if you get a 690 on ERW and a 640 on Math. However, a 690 ERW score is in the 93rd percentile, while a 640 Math score is in the 83rd percentile. Raising each section score by 100 points would raise your Math percentile ranking by 13 points and your ERW percentile ranking by only 6+ points. If you're thinking about retaking the SAT and trying to figure out where you should focus your studying efforts, your percentile scores can help identify how you can improve the most. Finally, percentile scores also tell us that a small increase in your composite score can have a large impact on your percentile score, particularly if you're scoring around or even a little below the middle of the pack. For instance, in 2018 an SAT score of 1050 was at the 49th percentile, but a score of 1210 was at the 76th. Increasing your score by just 160 points can take your score from below average to the top quarter of all SAT scores. Composite Score Percentiles, 2018, 2017, and 2016 SAT Composite Score 2018 Percentile 2017 Percentile 2016 Percentile 1600 99+ 99+ 99+ 1590 99+ 99+ 99+ 1580 99+ 99+ 99+ 1570 99+ 99+ 99+ 1560 99+ 99+ 99+ 1550 99+ 99+ 99+ 1540 99 99+ 99 1530 99 99+ 99 1520 99 99 99 1510 99 99 99 1500 99 99 98 1490 98 99 98 1480 98 99 98 1470 98 98 98 1460 97 98 97 1450 97 98 97 1440 96 97 96 1430 96 97 96 1420 95 96 95 1410 95 96 95 1400 94 95 94 1390 94 95 94 1380 93 94 93 1370 92 94 92 1360 92 93 91 1350 91 92 91 1340 90 91 90 1330 89 90 89 1320 88 90 88 1310 88 89 87 1300 87 88 86 1290 86 87 85 1280 84 86 83 1270 83 85 82 1260 82 83 81 1250 81 82 80 1240 80 81 78 1230 79 80 77 1220 77 78 76 1210 76 77 74 1200 74 76 72 90 73 74 71 80 72 73 69 70 70 71 67 60 68 69 65 50 67 68 64 40 65 66 62 30 63 64 60 20 62 63 58 10 60 61 57 00 58 59 55 1090 56 57 52 1080 54 55 50 1070 52 53 48 1060 51 51 46 1050 49 49 44 1040 47 47 42 1030 45 45 40 1020 43 43 38 1010 41 41 36 1000 39 40 34 990 37 38 32 980 36 36 30 970 34 34 29 960 32 32 27 950 31 31 25 940 29 29 24 930 27 27 22 920 26 26 20 910 24 24 19 900 23 22 18 890 21 21 16 880 20 19 15 870 18 18 14 860 17 17 13 850 15 15 12 840 14 14 830 13 13 10 820 12 12 9 810 8 800 10 9 7 790 9 8 7 780 8 8 6 770 7 7 5 760 6 6 4 750 5 5 4 740 4 4 3 730 4 4 3 720 3 3 2 710 3 3 2 700 2 2 2 690 2 2 2 680 1 1 1 670 1 1 1 660 1 1 1 650 1 1 1 640 1 1 1- 630 1- 1- 1- 620 1- 1- 1- 610 1- 1- 1- 600 1- 1- 1- 590 1- 1- 1- 580 1- 1- 1- 570 1- 1- 1- 560 1- 1- 1- 550 1- 1- 1- 540 1- 1- 1- 530 1- 1- 1- 520 1- 1- 1- 510 1- 1- 1- 500 1- 1- 1- 490 1- 1- 1- 480 1- 1- 1- 470 1- 1- 1- 460 1- 1- 1- 450 1- 1- 1- 440 1- 1- 1- 430 1- 1- 1- 420 1- 1- 1- 410 1- 1- 1- 400 1- 1- 1- Sources: SAT Understanding Scores 2016, SAT Understanding Scores 2017, SAT Understanding Scores 2018 Section Score Percentiles Evidence-Based Reading and Writing Score 2018 Percentile 2017 Percentile 2016 Percentile 800 99+ 99+ 99+ 790 99+ 99+ 99+ 780 99+ 99+ 99+ 770 99+ 99+ 99 760 99 99 99 750 99 99 99 740 98 98 98 730 97 98 97 720 97 97 96 710 96 96 95 700 94 95 94 690 93 94 92 680 92 92 91 670 90 91 89 660 88 89 86 650 86 87 84 640 84 85 81 630 81 82 78 620 78 79 75 610 75 77 72 600 72 73 69 590 69 70 66 580 66 67 63 570 63 64 60 560 59 60 56 550 56 57 52 540 52 53 49 530 49 49 45 520 45 46 42 510 42 42 38 500 38 39 35 490 35 35 31 480 31 32 28 470 28 28 25 460 25 25 22 450 22 22 20 440 19 19 17 430 16 16 15 420 14 14 13 410 12 400 9 10 9 390 8 8 7 380 6 6 6 370 4 5 5 360 3 4 3 350 2 3 3 340 2 2 2 330 1 1 1 320 1 1 1 310 1 1 1 300 1- 1 1- 290 1- 1- 1- 280 1- 1- 1- 270 1- 1- 1- 260 1- 1- 1- 250 1- 1- 1- 240 1- 1- 1- 230 1- 1- 1- 220 1- 1- 1- 210 1- 1- 1- 200 1- 1- 1- Sources: SAT Understanding Scores 2016, SAT Understanding Scores 2017, SAT Understanding Scores 2018 Math Score 2018 Percentile 2017 Percentile 2016 Percentile 800 99+ 99+ 99+ 790 99 99 99 780 98 99 98 770 98 99 98 760 97 98 98 750 96 97 97 740 96 97 96 730 95 96 95 720 94 95 95 710 93 94 94 700 92 94 92 690 91 92 91 680 89 91 89 670 88 89 88 660 86 88 87 650 85 86 86 640 83 84 83 630 81 82 81 620 79 81 79 610 77 78 76 600 75 76 73 590 72 73 70 580 69 70 67 570 66 67 64 560 64 65 60 550 61 61 57 540 57 58 53 530 53 54 49 520 49 49 45 510 44 45 40 500 40 40 34 490 37 37 30 480 34 34 27 470 31 32 24 460 28 29 21 450 25 25 18 440 22 22 16 430 20 20 14 420 17 17 12 410 15 14 10 400 13 12 8 390 10 7 380 9 8 5 370 7 7 4 360 6 5 3 350 4 4 3 340 3 3 2 330 2 2 1 320 1 1 1 310 1 1 1 300 1 1 1 290 1 1- 1- 280 1- 1- 1- 270 1- 1- 1- 260 1- 1- 1- 250 1- 1- 1- 240 1- 1- 1- 230 1- 1- 1- 220 1- 1- 1- 210 1- 1- 1- 200 1- 1- 1- Sources: SAT Understanding Scores 2016, SAT Understanding Scores 2017, SAT Understanding Scores 2018 What's Next? How do you compare to other students in your state? Find out with our regularly updated list of average SAT scores by state. Where does your SAT essay score fit into all this? Learn more about SAT essay scoring and what the average SAT essay score is here. Would you be able to score in a higher percentile on the ACT? We help you figure out if the ACT or SAT is a better test for you with this foolproof method. Disappointed with your scores? Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

The Massachusetts experience with universal health coverage Term Paper

The Massachusetts experience with universal health coverage - Term Paper Example In fact, the Affordable Care Act on Obamacare universal insurance is based largely on the Massachusetts universal health care coverage (Kessler 1). Universal Health Care has an impact on the individuals of a society and implementing it guarantees better health of the people and productivity. Universal Health Care Universal health care is a system of health insurance in which the objective is to ensure that all individuals in the society or any jurisdiction have access to good health care. In most countries, health care is expensive to especially those who are considered below the poverty line - they are unable to access healthcare facilities as they cannot afford. The universal health-care plan promises to change all that by providing insurance to even the very poor. This healthcare is based on several principles, as discussed below. Provision to all Universal care is based on the fact that all people should have access to healthcare. This is regardless of whether they are rich, poor or are in the middle class. The plan has to be such that no person is unable to pay for healthcare services. The cost of the services is spread across all the people using the plan to ensure that all people can be able to make payment regardless of their social class. This is through several options provided to the individuals. Reduced direct spending: Direct payments made by individuals seeking healthcare services to providers are reduced. In this case, the individuals have to cost share the cost with the providers. This can be through co-payments, in which the individuals subscribe to be paying a specified fee per month, deductibles in which the individual is deducted a certain amount of money after a certain period like monthly, quarterly or half yearly depending on their specifications, coinsurance in which insurance is spread across several parties and unofficial payments to the provider at the time when seeking healthcare services (Universal health coverage 3). Prepayment Hea lth care has to be financed by some individuals at some point. In the case of universal health care, individuals who can afford to make contributions every now and then are encouraged to continue making contributions. The payments are made before hand, and it is not necessarily that a person is seeking healthcare services to make the payment. Contributions are made through taxes, payroll deductions, contribution premiums and donor contributions. The contributions can be organized in different ways depending on the jurisdiction (Universal health coverage 4). Risk Pooling: Universal healthcare is based on sharing the cost of healthcare facilities and services. In this case, the cost incurred by any individual when seeking health care services is spread across all individuals that have subscribed to the universal health care services. For the system to be more effective, more people are required to subscribe and make payments. This reduces the chances of fluctuations when services are being provided. When few people subscribe, there are times when the facilities may lack funds, especially when many people are seeking medical interventions at the same time (Universal health coverage 5). Considerations for universal healthcare success Universal healthcare has to be well considered for it to work out properly. The political landscape of the country is

Small Business Review Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Small Business Review - Case Study Example Whilst this may seem like a relatively simple task to orchestrate, it is actually a difficult task considering that most SMEs are family owned businesses (Bowman-Upton 1991). Lassini (2005) found that family businesses are unlikely to survive after the third generation with only 30% of these businesses successfully handing over leadership to the second generation and 12% handing over to the third generation. Lassini (2005) also found that nearly 2-3% of family businesses progress to permanent development, compared with approximately 97% that either close down or are sold. There are a variety of reasons for these statistics, some of which include the fact that some of these businesses are started by immigrant populations. As their children get older, they can lose interest in the family business and develop a preference for integrating with other members of society by attending university, or moving into mainstream employment. Some of the businesses may not be owned by immigrant populations but the younger generation are constantly under pressure to take on employment offers in the more seemingly attractive areas of technology, media and other more glamor ous occupations which offer bigger pay packets and benefits. This demonstrates the importance of manageme... These organisations tend to have personalised management which results in the identification of the business with the owner/founder; they have a small market share which means they cannot dictate the price and have to rely on the numbers of goods sold; they occupy a niche market with heavy reliance on customer loyalty; and they also find it difficult to raise the finance to grow (Bartol and Martin 1998). Whilst SMEs have favourable characteristics which include having a dependable culture and strong commitment, their nature leaves them vulnerable to succession issues and dilemmas, and is often the main reason why they find it difficult to survive throughout generations. For example, the Hilton hotel chain was founded during the Great Depression in the US and it is currently in its second generation; however, the succession into the third generation does not seem clear as there is no apparent heir to the hotel chain. Traditional management succession models cannot be easily applied to SMEs because they are more relevant to larger corporations. For instance, traditional methods include employee motivation and rewards through promotions, higher salaries and incentives (Mullins 1999). However this can only work in an organisation a tall hierarchy and more layers of management which are lacking in SMEs. This paper shall analyse the issue of succession in a SME and consider future options for the business. The Business Case Study Stop N' Shop Supermarket has been chosen as the SME for analysis for this paper. This business has been selected based on the definition of an SME which stipulates that it has at least one employee and no more than 50 employees in order for it to be included in this paper. This business is family owned

Human-Resource Management Interview Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Human-Resource Management Interview - Assignment Example   Rao (2009) defines a group as a team of members who influence one another towards the accomplishment of organizational objectives. A group comprises of a smaller number of people equipped with complementary skills and committed to the common purpose, performance goals, and the approaches that they hold themselves mutually accountable (Chiarini, 2012). Groups are highly effective in the marketing department, just as they are in other departments of organizations. The first step in understanding the functionality of groups in human-resource management requires interviewing a person who holds a leadership position in an organization, especially in the marketing department. The Interviewee The name of the person interviewed is Harrison. Harrison is an overall marketing manager of the leading banking organization in Europe. Harrison holds a Master of Business Administration from Harvard University. The company hired Harrison in the year 2003; he has ten years experience in the company , but fifteen years in the marketing department.  Ã‚  Harrison’s Experience with Utilizing Groups Harrison has used groups two times during his time as a marketing manager. Harrison was first involved in developing a marketing group, where he headed the formation process. The stages of team development that Harrison oversaw included forming, storming, norming and performing. Forming involved orienting and acquainting with the team members, which was characterized by uncertainties and stress (Chiarini, 2012). The primary role of Harrison in this stage was to recognize that team members were struggling to adjust to their new functions and the environment. Harrison had to remain tolerant of lengthy interactions probing team specifics, facilitating role clarity and emphasizing the need for customer focus. The stage of storming involved encouraging open discussion, developing interpersonal competence and urging group members to arrive at agreements that will help the group to ac hieve its objectives. Norming was another critical stage where Harrison was involved in encouraging the group towards developing team norms and values, and the process of determining unacceptable behaviors that are significant for the future productivity of the organization (Rao, 2009). The last stage of group development was performed, which involved recognizing the accomplishments of the group and the desired behavior of the team to ensure sustainability and continuance of the team for an unforeseeable future. The second time that Harrison involved himself with groups was when hired to evaluate group performance.  Ã‚  

Operations & Supply Chain Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Operations & Supply Chain Management - Essay Example equent governmental funds and approaches that were taken to effect this, the course in question has been beneficial and instrumental in helping to analyze the way in which a resource dependent economy can utilize the resources that it has, and is able to generate a substantial level of funding from, as a means of developing and diversifying other economic resources that can help the economy in the long run. With regards to the manner through which what has been learned within this course can benefit individuals, and indeed the entire society of the United Arab Emirates, in the future, it must be understood that the progress that has been affected, although impressive, should not be viewed as a victory entirely. The underlying reason for this can be traced back to Chapter 2; Strategy and Sustainability. Within this particular chapter, the class was engaged with the understanding that the United Arab Emirates face a situation in which continued action to leverage further economic development, further specialties, further education, the development of further infrastructure, and a litany of other aspects was a dependent reality of whether or not the nation’s economy would be able to continue its impressive growth rate into the immediate and long-term future (Khalid 3). Another understanding that can clearly be denoted is with respect to the fact that a large level of dependence and continues to exist within the economy of the United Arab Emirates with regards to profitability derived from the sale of natural resources. Ultimately, due to the fact that these resources are non-sustainable, the economy is faced with a situation in which the rapid level of growth that it has experienced over the past several decades is not guaranteed into the indefinite future. Eventually, the resources of natural gas and/or oil will be exhausted. Alternatively, changes in technology could create a situation in which the United Arab Emirates has remaining resources of natural gas

Psycolinguistics Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Psycolinguistics - Research Proposal Example The psychological factors include the child’s family setting, stress, abuse, neglect, separation from loved ones, or an extreme psychological event that distressed him emotionally. The research will focus on questions like: Does an unsuitable family setting affect a child’s perception of speech? What impact does stress and emotional distress has on his speech and sound recognition? Does getting him separated from his loved ones like a parent affect his ability to perceive speech? These issues have inspired me to conduct this qualitative research. Literature Review Past Research Papers. Some past research that will be helpful is: Benedek, Elissa P. and Diane H. Schetky. â€Å"Problems in Validating Allegations of Sexual Abuse. Part 1: Factors Affecting Perception and Recall of Events.† Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26.6 (1987): 912-915. (This is a research on the effect of sexual abuse of child’s perception of events bu t it will also be helpful in interpreting child’s speech perception.) Hurewitz, Felicia, Brown-Schmidt, Sarah, Thorpe, Kirsten, Gleitman, Lila R. and John C. Trueswell.

The Responsibilities of Nursing Practitioner to Society Essay

The Responsibilities of Nursing Practitioner to Society - Essay Example While there is no uniformity as to the roles of students in particular institutions, there are roles that students in higher education would be under an obligation to play not only in their respective institutions but also in the society. These include but are not limited to the following. a. Dedicating all their efforts to furthering and attaining the highest levels of excellence for the better of the institution and society at large. As much as students in every other institution are expected to play this role, the responsibility is more pronounced for students in higher education. This is because they have more freedom which definitely comes with more responsibility as to their affairs. In this case, furthering their knowledge and academic excellence in particular fields is their ultimate responsibility all in an effort to make the institution and society better. b. Orienting other or new coming students to the system in the particular higher education institution they are in- more often than not, there will be new students or at least some individuals who are not conversant with the system of the institutions. While it would be possible for such individuals to be oriented to these systems with time, the students play a critical role in fastening the orientation process. This has the effect of stabilizing the institution and ensuring that all processes run smoothly. This also ensures quick implementation of the policies and other fundamental frameworks that exist to guide the smooth running of the institution. c. Contributing to improving the systems and structures of the institution in order to enhance efficiency- in many institutions, students play a very minute role in determining the systems within which they will be operating. However, this would be a bit farfetched as far as students in higher institutions are concerned.  

Psycolinguistics Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Psycolinguistics - Research Proposal Example The psychological factors include the child’s family setting, stress, abuse, neglect, separation from loved ones, or an extreme psychological event that distressed him emotionally. The research will focus on questions like: Does an unsuitable family setting affect a child’s perception of speech? What impact does stress and emotional distress has on his speech and sound recognition? Does getting him separated from his loved ones like a parent affect his ability to perceive speech? These issues have inspired me to conduct this qualitative research. Literature Review Past Research Papers. Some past research that will be helpful is: Benedek, Elissa P. and Diane H. Schetky. â€Å"Problems in Validating Allegations of Sexual Abuse. Part 1: Factors Affecting Perception and Recall of Events.† Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 26.6 (1987): 912-915. (This is a research on the effect of sexual abuse of child’s perception of events bu t it will also be helpful in interpreting child’s speech perception.) Hurewitz, Felicia, Brown-Schmidt, Sarah, Thorpe, Kirsten, Gleitman, Lila R. and John C. Trueswell.

Strip Searches in Schools Essay Example for Free

Strip Searches in Schools Essay The Fourth Amendment is an essential part of the United States Constitution. It grants all United States citizens the right to not have illegal searches and seizures brought against them. With this being said, the most recent debate of the Fourth Amendment has occurred in the United States Public School Systems. Many kids and adults feel that students should have the same rights under the Constitution when attending school as they do when they are out. However, many school officials believe that to keep schools safe, it is essential to bend the rules a little bit. This paper will discuss the debate that is raging in schools, look at recent cases involving the Fourth Amendment and schools, and give my personal view on the Fourth Amendment in schools. The debate that is currently raging in public schools, is whether or not kids in public schools, can be strip searched or not. This has many parents up in arms, because they feel like this violates their children’s safety, as well as, their Fourth Amendment rights. The issue of the Fourth Amendment in schools was never really an issue, until the shooting at Columbine High School in April of 1999. This massacre really put an emphasis on security in schools. With this being said, many schools started to gear towards random locker searches and back pack searches. They never took it to the extreme of strip searches. However, with the recent school shooting at Virginia Tech and with the most recent massacre in Aurora, Colorado, many schools have stepped up their security even more. School officials are scared of having a massacre at their school. So by being over protective, they believe they can prevent one from happening. The debate has begun to surface and be more recognized because parents believe that strip searches are too far. When it comes to their children, most parents are very protective and do not want their children violated in any way. With this introduction of strip searches into public schools, many parents believe the schools, as well as, the school officials, have taken it too far and believe this is a direct violation of their children’s Fourth Amendment rights. However, as we have discussed in class, when a parent drops their child off at school, the school assumes parenting rights of the child for that amount of time. This idea is known as Parens Patriae, or â€Å"taking the role of the parent†. School officials argue that this idea gives them the right to search the kids as intrusively as needed, if they believe it will help protect other students and staff. People against this, such as Dennis D. Parker, say, â€Å"The disastrous effects of overly intrusive searches in schools are only underscored by the availability of alternatives, which are more effective in creating safe environments and encouraging participation and learning by all students in schools† (Parker, 2010). Some parents however, do not mind all of the searches. They believe that it is keeping their children safe at school and that strip searches only happen on rare occasions. Many people are not raising an uproar over back-packs or lockers being searched. They are only fighting against the strip searches. The idea that their children are being â€Å"violated† has them scared. This idea can also be attributed to the recent spike in awareness of child sex-offenders. The media coverage of child sex-offenders in schools, churches, and other places, has the public scared. Many parents do not want their children being molested or raped by a school official. When parents hear the word â€Å"strip† they automatically think the worst. They do not want their child to become a victim of something heinous, such as sexual abuse. This debate has grown fierce. It has sparked many court cases that challenge public schools and whether or not they violate children’s Fourth Amendment rights by conducting strip searches. The most recent and well known case in the media is, Safford Unified School District No. 1 v. Redding. This court case spread across the nation like wildfire and eventually made it to the Supreme Court for review. The facts of the case are that a young 13 year old girl named Savana Redding, was forced to strip down to her bra and underwear and pull both undergarments away from her body. The school officials forced Redding to do this in an attempt to find prescription-strength ibuprofen, which is against school rules to possess and is treated as an illegal drug. The officials strip searched Redding because another student had stated that Redding had this â€Å"drug†. The officials did not find any drugs within her locker or back-pack and stated that they believed Redding was hiding the drugs on her person. The officials believed this constituted a strip search, because the school had a zero-tolerance policy for any type of drugs or violence, and in an effort to protect their students they had Redding searched. Many parents were outraged by what happened to Savana Redding, because they believed it could happen to their children as well. Redding along with her mother and the ACLU sued the school officials for violating her Fourth Amendment rights. This case reached national attention and finally reached the Supreme Court. After reaching the Supreme Court, the two sides battled and Redding was the victor. According to Laura Jarrett, â€Å"In a decision written by Justice Souter,5 the majority applied the T. L. O. standard to hold that the strip search in Savana Redding’s case violated the Fourth Amendment because it was unreasonable in its scope† (Jarrett, 2010). This case however, did not set precedent. Schools are allowed to strip search children as long as it is within a reasonable scope. This means that if a child is suspected of having a weapon of some sort, he/she may be strip searched in order to find it. However, in Savana Redding’s case, a few simple pills of ibuprofen, did not satisfy the reasonableness of a strip search, and thus violated Redding’s Fourth Amendment rights. This case has opened many people’s eyes to how much power our school officials actually wield. This puts many parents in a tough spot, because they do not want their children to be harmed or taken advantage of by school officials, but they want their children to be safe at school. More cases will be brought to court that deal with the issue of the Fourth Amendment in schools. My reaction to all of this is one that is filled with mixed emotions. As a student in college and as someone that grew up through these changes in the school system, I have seen the first hand effects of these new zero-tolerance policies. I grew up a military kid and moved from school to school every year. I attended four high schools and each one had a different policy and a new set of rules to follow. The first high school I attended forced us to wear uniforms, to eliminate gangs within our school and promote a â€Å"community of learning†. My first high school had metal detectors at the front doors and every kid had to walk through them. We had six school police officers that closely monitored all of the students. This measure of security was not fun to go through every day. It was very intimidating and time consuming, because there was only so many metal detectors. I do not believe these metal detectors, or police officers, helped keep our school any safer than they would have been without them. All these devices did, was intimidate you when you walked into a so-called â€Å"learning environment†. According to Parker, â€Å"Recognition that not all disciplinary policies are fair or effective and a requirement that any policies be reasonable represent a necessary first step for students who have not fared well historically in the education system† (Parker, 2010). My first high school obviously had not recognized that. My first high school, almost seemed like a jail. We wore uniforms, walked through metal detectors, police constantly watched us in the halls. According to Jessica R. Feierman and Riya S. Shah, â€Å"Confinement to a detention center or other juvenile institution places children outside the view of their families, friends, and the public, and subjects them to what Kenneth Wooden has called a deliberate â€Å"politics of secrecy,† hiding the conditions in juvenile institutions from the public eye† (Feierman and Shah, 2012). I believe not only was my first high school like this, but I also believe that more and more schools are trying to turn into institutions that monitor kids, instead of teach them. Children respond to relationships, not to intimidation. Along with this, I am conflicted, because I know that there is a need to keep our children safe in school. The world has proven to be a dangerous place, filled with dangerous people. The massacres at Columbine, Virginia Tech, Aurora, and others have shown us that we need protection. But I do not believe we need strip searches in schools. According to Diana R. Donahoe, â€Å"Studies have found children who have been subject to a strip search can be greatly traumatized by the experience† (Donahoe, 2012). We have enough problems with teachers having sex with their students, and even some molesting their students. By inserting this power into our schools, this will open up more lawsuits and could even lead to people losing their jobs if something was done improperly. According to Nicole L. Bracy, â€Å"Over the past several decades, public schools in the United States have been increasingly transformed into high security environments, complete with surveillance technologies, security forces, and harsh punishments† (Bracy, 2012). We teach our kids that school is fun and a great place to learn. However, when they grow up and get to school, they realize that school is really a moderate form of prison or jail. In our madness to protect our children, we have really just imprisoned them and taken away from the learning environment. Our schools have become too powerful. With the continued addition of power to our schools, we will have no control over what they can and cannot do. The Fourth Amendment is a vital part of our Constitution and we must protect it, whether that be in everyday life or in schools. This paper has discussed the debate that is raging in schools, looked at recent cases involving the Fourth Amendment and schools, and has given my personal view on the Fourth Amendment in schools. Without the Fourth Amendment protecting us, we are subject to illegal searches and seizures. Students deserve to be protected and not subject to strip searches in school. This issue is far from over and must be brought to the attention of the public, so we can stop the schools from gaining anymore power.

Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996)

Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996) Introduction The main argument of this dissertation is that the language of John Hodges screenplay Trainspotting, even though it appears to contain sub-cultural social contexts, cannot be categorised within the framework of linguistic theory as representing a youth subculture. The verbal conflict formation in the text should be read as reflective of the larger worldview that verbal conflict behaviour is inevitable in all societies, as are the existence of social dialectsand the usage of common slang. 1. Gumperz Term: Speech Community In his 1982 volume Discourse strategies, John Gumperz discusses the concept of a speech community. He defines speech community as a system of organized diversity held together by common norms and aspirations. He also states that the speech community must form the starting point of linguistic analysis. He further states that although members of the same speech community may differ in terms of their beliefs and their behaviours, that this is a normal variation and has been shown to be a systematic regularity of communities. For, the most part, however, members of speech communities generally share norms of evaluation. Gumperz stresses the point that it is not the individual speakers of a language that make up a speech community. He cites the theories of Saussure and others of that time period to support this statement: It was believed that these reflect either momentary preferences, personal idiosyncrasies, or expressive or emotive tendencies, which rely on universal signalling mechani sms and are thus not part of the system of meaningful sounds by which substantive information is conveyed (11-12). According to Gumperz, although the ability to form grammatical statements is common to all speakers of a certain language, the more complex knowledge of contextualization convention varies widely. He also points out that contextualization is not something that can be attained through formal education or reading, but must be learned through face-to-face interactions. Discourse at this level is marked by conventions that reflect prolonged interactive experience by individuals cooperating in institutionalized settings in the pursuit of shared goals in friendship, occupational and similar networks of relationships (209). Language and social identity, a volume published in the same year, was co-authored by Jenny Cook-Gumperz. In this work, he discusses the role of communicative skills in our society, asserting that they have been radically altered. It is absolutely essential for individuals in todays society to be capable of managing or adapting to a variety of diverse communicative situations. In addition, they must be able to interact freely with people who are virtual strangers to them. These abilities are an absolute necessity if one is to acquire a sense of personal control and to establish a sense of order in ones life. The cause for this change, he asserts, is the bureaucratization of public institutions, which have become increasingly pervasive in our day-to-day lives. He sees this as a result of our post-industrial society and states that it exists in both Western and non-Western countries. The skills required to function at this level are far more complex, but must be mastered if one is to function autonomously as a member of a speech community. 2. Hallidays Notion: Antilanguages In Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation oflanguage and meaning, M.A.K. Halliday explains the initial acquisitionof language as part of the development of the child as a socialcreature: Language is the main channel through which the patterns ofliving are transmitted to him, through which he learns to act as amember of a â€Å"society† (9). The child does this, she goes on toexplain, through associations with family, neighbourhood, and varioussocial groups; these comprise the foundation on which the child baseshis or her belief systems and values. The child does not learn these things directly, but ratherindirectly, Halliday explains. It is through the accumulatedexperience of numerous small events, insignificant in themselves, inwhich his behaviour is guided and controlled, and in the course ofwhich he contracts and develops personal relationships of all kinds'(9). The unifying factor here is language; language is the mediumthrough which all of this takes place. She develops her discussion further by introducing the notion of anantisociety which is in direct contrast to society, describing theantisociety as a conscious alternative that can also be viewed as aform of resistance. This resistance can take a number of forms. It canbe passive, in which case it will appear, at least outwardly, to causeno harm. On the other hand, it can be actively hostile to the point ofcausing actual destruction. The antilanguage is the language of the antisociety. It isparallel to the antisociety, which of course generates it. Bothlanguage and its counterpart, antilanguage, share equal linguisticsignificance. According to Halliday, either pair, a society and itslanguage or an antisociety and its (anti) language, is, equally, aninstance of the prevailing sociolinguistic order (164). Halliday describes the antilanguage as a form of resocialization,as a mechanism that creates an alternative reality. In this sense, shedoes not see it as a negative construct, but rather of reconstruction(170). The significant aspect of the language/antilanguage dynamicexists in the distance between the two, and in the tension that iscaused by that distance. The individual may function in either worldand may go back and forth with relative comfort. In this sense, it mayseem that he is living a double existence. Still, it should not be forgotten that both aspects—language andantilanguage—originate from the same place. Because of this commonbackground, there is continuity between them which parallels thatbetween society and antisociety. Not only is there a continuity, thereis also tension. Hence, although the languages may be expressed bymembers of different social strata, they are both parts of the samesocial system. In other words, the antisociety is, in terms ofLà ©vi-Strausss distinction between metaphor and metonymy, metonymic tosociety—it is an extension of it, within the social system (Halliday175). Thus, basically, an antilanguage is just another language. However,the world it exists in is a counter-reality, which in itself hascertain implications: It implies preoccupation with the definition anddefence of identity through the ritual functioning of the socialhierarchy. It implies a special conception of information and ofknowledge (172). In addition, there will be a certain amount of secrecy in anantilanguage; this is inherent in its nature. The reality in which itfunctions is a secret reality. Generally, the members of this realitydo have secrets. Often these secrets may have something of an illegalassociation to them. It is just as likely, however, that the secretsare not illegal, but merely lacking in respectability and socialsanction. They may be the secrets of a segment of the population whichexists at least partly in its fringes, although its members may notwant this known in the mainstream. The antisociety is, then, a metaphorfor the society, and it joins society at the level of the social system. The perspective of the antilanguage is generally that of adistinctly different view of the world, one which is thereforepotentially threatening, if it does not coincide with ones own'(Halliday 179). The purpose of the antilanguage is primarily fordisplay as its speakers struggle to maintain their counter-realitywhile existing within the confines of the world. An antilanguage, according to Halliday, brings into sharp reliefthe role of language as a realization of the power structure ofsociety (181). The antilanguages of countercultures, such as prisonsand criminal networks, are often full are defined against the socialstructure. Essentially, they are defined by what they are not. This isnot unlike the jargon or nomenclature of certain highly-specialisedprofessions, which may in some sense be seen as having a similar—thoughacceptable by society—counter-reality. Members of mainstream society who are speakers solely of standarddialect may have negative reactions to antilanguage. However, they willusually express this indirectly. For example, they may state that theydont like the vowels as they are pronounced by the speakers of theantilanguage, when in essence what they are saying is that they dontlike the values held by the speakers of the antilanguage. 3. Labovs Finding: The Concept of Sounding Labov and his colleagues (Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and JohnLewis) studied the vernacular of young American black males in theinner city areas of New York. The youths ranged in age from eight to 19years old, and they spoke a relatively uniform grammar, the language ofstreet culture. Labov and his team used a variety of methods to gather their data,the most important of which was long-term participant-observation withpeer groups (via). They collected tape-recorded conversations that tookplace on school buses, field trips, and parties—essentially, any typeof gathering where the youths got together and socialized. They thencarefully analyzed the data they collected, noting the patterns theyfound in speech events. Two examples of these exchanges are below. A: Eat shit. B: Hop on the spoon. A. Move over. B. I cant, your mothers already there. The following exchange is between two adolescents, John and Willie, with an observer (Rel) looking on: John: Who father wear raggedy drawers? Willie: Yeh the ones with so many holes in them when-a-you walk they whistle? Rel: Oh . . . shi-it! When you walk they whistle! Oh shit! (326) Given the insults against the person, his family, his poverty, aperson who is not a member of a given culture might expect thesituation to escalate into physical conflict. However, Labov points out that these are actually ritual insults. Herefers to this as sounding, which he describes as a complex patternof verbal conflict. Sounding has also been called playing the dozensor signifying. It consists of a dialogue that is usually performedfor an audience of observers who are usually peers. The dialogue itselfconsists of ritual insults, most of which are directed towards theother speakers mother, self, or housing situation. The speakers tradethese sounds back and forth as though in competition, and theaudience looks on. Occasionally an audience member will comment, approve, ordisapprove of the statements of one or both speakers. Labov points outthat the audience is an essential ingredient to this process: It istrue that one person can sound against another without a third personbeing present, but the presupposition that this is public behavior caneasily be heard in the verbal style. The presence of an audience has a definite impact on the speechevent. The sounds are no longer spoken in a direct, face-to-faceconversational mode when others are present. The speakers voices tendto be raised and they become more projected, suggesting full awarenessthat the audience is there. In the second exchange above, Rel makes acomment on Willies insult, praising it. In a sounding session, Labovpoints out, everything is public—nothing significant happens withoutdrawing comment. The rules and patterning of this particular speechevent are therefore open for our inspection (327). In fact, theexistence of an audience is considered a defining factor, according toLabov. A primary difference between sounding and other speech events isthat most sounds are evaluated overtly and immediately by theaudience (325). By closely analyzing the discourse of this segment of thepopulation, Labov was able to isolate certain characteristics and todiscern patterns in the structure of this ritua l exchange of insults.After a while, the fundamental difference that divides ritual insultsand personal insults became clear. For example, there was a very clearopposition between an insult that is made during this ritualperformance and an actual, personal insult. The appropriate responsesare quite different: a personal insult is answered by a denial, excuse,or mitigation, whereas a sound or ritual insult is answered by longersequences (335). The ritual insults must be exaggerated to thepoint of being ridiculous and clearly untrue. This is clear to both thespeakers and to the audience that is following the exchange. If theinsults violate this rule—for example, one speaker makes a comment thatis both derogatory and which is known to be accurate—the ritual mayturn into conflict. The speech event we call sounding is not isolated from other formsof verbal interaction: it can merge with them or become transformedinto a series of personal insults, asserts Labov (330). He points outthat when ritual insult passes over into a different level ofdiscourse, that of interpersonal conflict, the difference between thetwo is unmistakably clear. Audience reaction is a key tool in assessing sounds. Laughter isthe primary mark of affirmation. A really successful sound will beevaluated by overt commentsAnother, even more forceful mode ofapproving sounds is t repeat the striking part of the sound oneself'(325). Negative reactions to sounds happen with a similar frequency andare equally overt. At the end of any sounding contest, all members,speakers and audience alike, are keenly aware of the who has come outahead. 4-a. Goffmans Notion: Face in Politeness Goffman writes that the ritual order seems to be organizedbasically on accommodative lines (109). These lines allow individualsto build and maintain illusions about themselves, and are not governedby laws or justice. Rather, Goffman asserts, the main principle of theritual order is not justice but face (110). Hence, the governingprinciple is what allows individuals to save face. Individuals whocross the line do not suffer retribution, but rather receive what isnecessary to bolster the illusion of self to which they are committed. The ways in which an individuals may insulate themselves aremyriad. Some of them include half-truths, illusions, andrationalizations. Therefore, not only are they able to convincethemselves of the beliefs necessary to his continued sense of self,they are further bolstered by the support of those close to them. Thusthey continue to believe in the illusion of self, and this illusion isfurther maintained and reinforced by the members of their immediate,intimate circle (109). 4-b. Does face exist in the discourse when verbal conflict occurs? An incidence of verbal conflict requires the individual uponwhom the offense has been committed to react in some way. The type ofreaction will depend on the level of offense. One mechanism for savingface is avoidance. That is, if a person is offended by anotherindividual, but can let the incident go without losing too much face,then it is likely that the offended person will let the situation go.He or she may rationalize this by telling themselves that they willdeal with the offender at some point in the future, perhaps when thecircumstances are optimal—although it is just as likely that when thispoint in time presents itself, no action will be taken. If the offense committed against the person is great, an actionmust be taken by the offended person. They may decide to withdraw fromthe situation and may avoid future encounters with individuals whobreak the ritual code. Alternately, they may arrange to have theoffending person removed, thus ensuring that there will be no furthercommunication necessary with this individual. Societies must mobilize their members as self-regulatingparticipants in social encounters Goffman asserts. Ritual is one wayof doing this. Members of society are taught the importance of face,and that they should value such qualities as pride, honor, dignity, andpoise (110). Maintaining face then is a one way in which individuals protectthemselves and maintain their illusions of who they are and where theystand in the social hierarchy. This does not mean that face is realor authentic: Universal human nature is not a very human thing,asserts Goffman. By acquiring it, the person becomes a kind ofconstruct, built up not from inner psychic propensities but from moralrules that are impressed upon him from without (110). This constructis necessary for the individuals sense of self and helps him tomaintain the ritual equilibrium that is essential for his survival. 5. Brown and Levinson and the politeness phenomena Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson derive their definition offace from Goffman. They also include the English folk term, whichincludes the concept of being embarrassed or humiliated—or, simply put,losing face. They explain this further: Thus face is something thatis emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained, or enhanced,and must be constantly attended to in interaction (Brown and Levinson61). Brown and Levinson also point out that one individuals sense offace is dependent upon the continued maintenance of everyone elsessense of face. A threat to one individuals face, then, becomes athreat to all. Individuals in the community soon learn that it is intheir best interest to defend not only their own faces, but those ofthe other members of the community as well. Brown and Levinson discuss two kinds of linguistic politeness: positive politeness and negative politeness. Central to our model is a highly abstract notion of â€Å"face†which consists of two specific kinds of desires(â€Å"face-wants†) attributed by interactants to one another: thedesire to be unimpeded in ones actions (negative face), and the desire (in some respects) to be approved of (positive face)(13). Brown and Levinson offer fifteen strategies that speakers use to establish positive politeness: [H= addressee] 1. notice, attend to Hs interests, wants, needs, goods 2. exaggerate interest, approval, sympathy with H 3. intensify interest to H 4. use in-group identity markers -address forms -use of in-group language or dialect -use of jargon or slang -contraction and ellipsis 5. seek agreement 6. avoid disagreement 7. presuppose/raise/assert common ground–gossip, small talk 8. joke 9. assert or presuppose Ss knowledge of and concern for Hs wants 10. offer, promise 11. be optimistic 12. include both S H in the activity, using we 13. give (or ask for reasons) 14. assume or assert reciprocity 15. give gifts–goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation If positive politeness is defined as redress directed to theaddressees positive face, then negative politeness is redressiveaction addressed to the addressees negative face: his want to have hisfreedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded (129).Strategies used by speakers in the process of establishing negativeface include: 1. be conventionally indirect–opposing tensions, indirect speech acts 2. question, hedge 3. be pessimistic 4. minimize the imposition 5. give deference 6. apologize 7. impersonalize S H 8. state the FTA [face-threatening act] as a general rules 9. nominalize 10. go on record as incurring a debt, or as not indebting H Brown and Levinson have a third category for speech actions. Thisone is off record. A communicative act is done off record if it isdoe in such a way that it is not possible to attribute only one clearcommunicative intention to the act (211). 1. give hints 2. give assocation clues 3. presuppose 4. understate 5. overstate 6. use tautologies 7. use contradictions 8. be ironic 9. use metaphors 10. use rhetorical questions 11. be ambiguous 12. be vague 13. over-generalize 14. displace H 15. be incomplete, use ellipsis Off record politeness is a sort of hybrid strategy that falls in between the two and is difficult, if not impossible to definitively categorize (Brown and Levinson, 230). 6a. Grimshaws concept of conflict talk In the introduction to his 1990 volume Conflict talk:Sociolinguistic investigations of arguments in conversations, AllenGrimshaw writes: Conflict talk is at the same time so complex a phenomenon andone so deeply implicated in every dimension of human sociallife that it would be possible to identify dozens of reasonswhy it should be a focus of systematic inquiry; by thesame token one would be left wondering why its study hasbeen so neglected (3). Grimshaw points out that conflicts may have as their focus a numberof subjects, including beliefs, objects (things), persons, groups, orinstitutions (294). Interestingly, he asserts that as long as conflicttalk is sustained and the participants do not withdraw, conflicts need not increase in hostility. The increase in hostilityseems to occur only with an increased sense of intensity on both sides 6b. Goodwin and Goodwin: interstitial argument In their essay Interstitial argument, Charles Goodwin andMarjorie Harness Goodwin present the findings of their researchregarding verbal conflict. During the course of their research theywere able to closely study the relationship between participants andtheir local environment. One thing they found is that despite thedisruptive behavior that accompanies an argument, the participants payextremely close attention to the details surrounding them. During theargument, what goes on is actually a process of very intricatecoordination between the parties who are opposing each other (85). For a year and a half M.H. Goodwin audiotaped a group of urbanblack children as they played together in the street. This was onesegment of a larger project in which a range of speech activities werebeing studies. These activities included gossip, arguments, stories,and directives, and similar activities. Specifically, four childrenwere audiotaped during oppositional exchanges, and these exchanges werethen transcribed and analyzed. One of the issues at hand was aslingshot battle. All exchanges, from the planning stages to theselection of teams to the preparation of weapons, were studied inmeticulous detail. From these data Goodwin examined content shift andcontext within argument, multi-party argument, and piggybacking, oraffiliation in argument. Analysing their findings, the Goodwins discovered that by followingthe sequence of utterances, it was clear that the four individualsinvolved in the exchange did not have equal positions (107). It seemedclear that each side had a primary spokesman, followed by a secondindividual who followed the behavior of the primary spokesman. This ledGoodwin and Goodwin to conclude that the structures utilised in theprocess of negotiating opposition also provide resources for theparticipants, enabling them to duplicate types of social organization.Thus, the process of arguing essentially gives the participants resources for reproducing a life that is greater than that of the argument itself (113). Finally, Goodwin and Goodwin write that it has been argued that thetalk people produce during their dealings with each other is oftenconsidered to be too disorderly to be properly organized and studied.In response to this, they write that in analysing the data from thisstudy they found anything but disorder. The participants themselves,within the space of a very few turns, produce a range of systematicpermutations on a basic structure with a precision that would tax theingenuity of even the most inventive experimental design to replicate'(114). 6c. Schiffrin: argument: the role of opinions and stories Deborah Schiffrin asserts that everyday forms of talk are guidedby norms of co-operation and competition. Even argument, a form of talkwhich might seem to be the paradigm example of conflict talk, can be aco-operative way of speaking as well as (or instead of) a competitiveway of speaking (241). Schriffin uses Goffmans concepts of footing and frame asadditional links. Footing and frames are very similar to eachother. Schriffin explains the frame as the definition of thesituation, and the footing as the sort of alignments taken up byparticipation (242). She then goes on to explore opinions and stories. With regard toopinions, she admits that it is not always possible to find linguisticfeatures which mark a declarative statement as the presentation of an opinion, and that because of this,one needs to look elsewhere, and she presents her criteria fordiscerning what an opinion actually consists of, concluding thatopinions are unverifiable, internal, subjective depictions of anexternal worldthe facts presented by the author cannot remainundisputed, but the principals stance toward that proposition cannotbe/ disputed 248-9). This, she explains, also gives opinions aparadoxical status in argument, such that they can either initiate orend an argument (249). She then discusses the role of stories, breaking them down into: †¢ selective interpretation †¢ deictic (time) shifts †¢ evaluation †¢ contextualization First of all, she asserts, one must consider that theinterpretation of stories is highly selective. Individuals will choosecertain stories and interpret them in a way that justifies certainbehaviors and actions. Second, there are deictic, or time shifts, to beconsidered. For example, frequently a speaker must re-orient him orherself back to the actual time of the story, to a time when they mighthave had less knowledge or information about the story. The thirdaspect of stories that Schiffrin finds significant are the evaluativedevices used by the storyteller. These devices can be phonological,grammatical, or textual in nature. Finally, she asserts, stories arepresented as frames within certain events are explained,contextualizing them. Text Analysis on Verbal Conflict, using examples from the screenplay of Trainspotting 1. Overview. Trainspotting is a coming-of-age story in story of a group ofheroin-addicted young people from Edinburgh. It is a very vividdepiction of junkie life as well as a cross-section of life in the 90s.The title of the book, Trainspotting, is also a term used in theBritish Isles for people who, as a hobby, keep track of local trainschedules with excessive vigilance. Essentially, the term is synonymouswith wasting time, making this activity a sort of metaphor for heroinaddiction. Both activities are essentially pointless and futile. Drugs are a central focus of the story, and in particular (but notexclusively) heroin. This is very clear from the language that is used.This can be noted from the frequency of the occurrence of terms whichrelate to heroin. There are numerous references to the sale,acquisition, preparation, injection, and withdrawal of heroin. Thedrug-related words which appear with highest frequency include hit,junk, shot, and inject, each of which appear more than ten times.Other commonly used drug words include of course the drugitself—heroin—along with its many variations, such as smack and skag. However, despite the omnipresence of drug and drug-relatedactivities, the story does not set out to glorify heroin use; neitherdoes it condemn or moralize use of the drug. It does, however, give aclear depiction of the bleak environment this group of young peoplemust survive in. The area is working-class. References are made to DSSchecks and Giro, which are terms associated with the life of povertyand struggle. This dismal backdrop, and the fact that they have littlehope of physical escape, makes their wreckless behaviour a bit moreunderstandable. Their addictions seem to be the most reliable, if notthe only, escape. Trainspotting is very definitely a movie about youth culture. Itshows an intricate understanding of the issues and influences uponyouth at that period in time, and it realistically reflects thecultural experiences had by young people. Trainspotting appeals to acult-prone youth because it contains the elements that comprisefoundations of subculture in British culture. Alt hough other worksappealed to the youth culture of that period, Trainspotting enjoyed apopularity that exceeded most of them. This may have been due to itsauthenticity in replicating the youth culture experience. When it first premiered (and even now), the graphic detail ofits language and content was found to be rather shocking by some.However, it resonated very strongly with anyone familiar with drugculture. It reflects, sometimes quite graphically, the underbelly ofEdinburgh in the 1980s, and focuses, as mentioned earlier, mainly onone group of heroin addicts, as well as their friends and families.Their experiences as they struggle with very real issues that many canidentify with: life, work, family, death, the struggle to survive.Other issues—ones that may not have been part of mainstream culture—arepresented as well: AIDS, heroin overdose, heroin withdrawal, and raves,among others. The use of dialect is very powerful in Trainspotting. Inaddition, the social, political, and economic views expressed by thecharacters would have mirrored the views of societys fringemembers—specifically members of the youth and/or drug cultures. Renton and his mates do not rebel against society, but they doattempt to transcend in their destructive ways. Renton often parodiesfamous Thatcher quotes through his â€Å"Choose life† rants and frequentcomments regarding the emptiness of society, as demonstrated in thefollowing examples from the screenplay: †¢ Choose life. Choose a job. Choose a career. Choose a family.Choose a fucking big television, choose washing machines, cars, compactdisc players, and electrical tin openers. †¢ Choose good health, low cholesterol, and dental insurance. Choosefixed-interest mortgage repayments. Choose a starter home. Choose yourfriends. †¢ Choose leisurewear and matching luggage. Choose a three-piece suiton hire purchase in a range of fucking fabrics. Choose DIY andwondering who the fuck you are on a Sunday morning. Choose sitting onthat couch watching mind-numbing, spirit-crushing game shows, stuffingfucking junk food into your mouth. Choose rotting away at the endof it all, pishing your last in a miserable home, nothing more than anembarrassment to the selfish, fucked-up brats you have spawned toreplace yourself. Choose your future. Choose life. †¢ I chose not to choose life. I chose something else. And thereasons? There are no reasons. Who needs reasons when youve gotheroin? The lifestyle portrayed in Trainspotting has been described asrepresenting a detached subculture of British youth. However, thereis no evidence in the screenplay to support this assertion. The youngcharacters in this story simply attempt to survive in the largerenvironment by adapting in whatever ways they can, primarily throughmusic and through drugs. They do not attempt to change the status quo,nor are they champions of social reform. They simply react to the bleaksocial conditions that they were born into. Unable to physically escape their environment, they find release in music, drugs, alcohol, and sex. Renton is a prime example of this. He is not proactive, he issimply a survivor. He assesses situations with the manipulative eye ofan addict, and he reacts accordingly, taking advantage when he sees theopportunity. He and his contemporaries are merely representative ofyouth who are struggling for a sense of identity. Their mindset isambiguous; they react to outside societal pressures by employing theirchosen means. But they cannot be considered as a youth subculture basedon their language that has been described in the previous section. Language T Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996) Analysis of Linguistic Theory in Transpotting (1996) Introduction The main argument of this dissertation is that the language of John Hodges screenplay Trainspotting, even though it appears to contain sub-cultural social contexts, cannot be categorised within the framework of linguistic theory as representing a youth subculture. The verbal conflict formation in the text should be read as reflective of the larger worldview that verbal conflict behaviour is inevitable in all societies, as are the existence of social dialectsand the usage of common slang. 1. Gumperz Term: Speech Community In his 1982 volume Discourse strategies, John Gumperz discusses the concept of a speech community. He defines speech community as a system of organized diversity held together by common norms and aspirations. He also states that the speech community must form the starting point of linguistic analysis. He further states that although members of the same speech community may differ in terms of their beliefs and their behaviours, that this is a normal variation and has been shown to be a systematic regularity of communities. For, the most part, however, members of speech communities generally share norms of evaluation. Gumperz stresses the point that it is not the individual speakers of a language that make up a speech community. He cites the theories of Saussure and others of that time period to support this statement: It was believed that these reflect either momentary preferences, personal idiosyncrasies, or expressive or emotive tendencies, which rely on universal signalling mechani sms and are thus not part of the system of meaningful sounds by which substantive information is conveyed (11-12). According to Gumperz, although the ability to form grammatical statements is common to all speakers of a certain language, the more complex knowledge of contextualization convention varies widely. He also points out that contextualization is not something that can be attained through formal education or reading, but must be learned through face-to-face interactions. Discourse at this level is marked by conventions that reflect prolonged interactive experience by individuals cooperating in institutionalized settings in the pursuit of shared goals in friendship, occupational and similar networks of relationships (209). Language and social identity, a volume published in the same year, was co-authored by Jenny Cook-Gumperz. In this work, he discusses the role of communicative skills in our society, asserting that they have been radically altered. It is absolutely essential for individuals in todays society to be capable of managing or adapting to a variety of diverse communicative situations. In addition, they must be able to interact freely with people who are virtual strangers to them. These abilities are an absolute necessity if one is to acquire a sense of personal control and to establish a sense of order in ones life. The cause for this change, he asserts, is the bureaucratization of public institutions, which have become increasingly pervasive in our day-to-day lives. He sees this as a result of our post-industrial society and states that it exists in both Western and non-Western countries. The skills required to function at this level are far more complex, but must be mastered if one is to function autonomously as a member of a speech community. 2. Hallidays Notion: Antilanguages In Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation oflanguage and meaning, M.A.K. Halliday explains the initial acquisitionof language as part of the development of the child as a socialcreature: Language is the main channel through which the patterns ofliving are transmitted to him, through which he learns to act as amember of a â€Å"society† (9). The child does this, she goes on toexplain, through associations with family, neighbourhood, and varioussocial groups; these comprise the foundation on which the child baseshis or her belief systems and values. The child does not learn these things directly, but ratherindirectly, Halliday explains. It is through the accumulatedexperience of numerous small events, insignificant in themselves, inwhich his behaviour is guided and controlled, and in the course ofwhich he contracts and develops personal relationships of all kinds'(9). The unifying factor here is language; language is the mediumthrough which all of this takes place. She develops her discussion further by introducing the notion of anantisociety which is in direct contrast to society, describing theantisociety as a conscious alternative that can also be viewed as aform of resistance. This resistance can take a number of forms. It canbe passive, in which case it will appear, at least outwardly, to causeno harm. On the other hand, it can be actively hostile to the point ofcausing actual destruction. The antilanguage is the language of the antisociety. It isparallel to the antisociety, which of course generates it. Bothlanguage and its counterpart, antilanguage, share equal linguisticsignificance. According to Halliday, either pair, a society and itslanguage or an antisociety and its (anti) language, is, equally, aninstance of the prevailing sociolinguistic order (164). Halliday describes the antilanguage as a form of resocialization,as a mechanism that creates an alternative reality. In this sense, shedoes not see it as a negative construct, but rather of reconstruction(170). The significant aspect of the language/antilanguage dynamicexists in the distance between the two, and in the tension that iscaused by that distance. The individual may function in either worldand may go back and forth with relative comfort. In this sense, it mayseem that he is living a double existence. Still, it should not be forgotten that both aspects—language andantilanguage—originate from the same place. Because of this commonbackground, there is continuity between them which parallels thatbetween society and antisociety. Not only is there a continuity, thereis also tension. Hence, although the languages may be expressed bymembers of different social strata, they are both parts of the samesocial system. In other words, the antisociety is, in terms ofLà ©vi-Strausss distinction between metaphor and metonymy, metonymic tosociety—it is an extension of it, within the social system (Halliday175). Thus, basically, an antilanguage is just another language. However,the world it exists in is a counter-reality, which in itself hascertain implications: It implies preoccupation with the definition anddefence of identity through the ritual functioning of the socialhierarchy. It implies a special conception of information and ofknowledge (172). In addition, there will be a certain amount of secrecy in anantilanguage; this is inherent in its nature. The reality in which itfunctions is a secret reality. Generally, the members of this realitydo have secrets. Often these secrets may have something of an illegalassociation to them. It is just as likely, however, that the secretsare not illegal, but merely lacking in respectability and socialsanction. They may be the secrets of a segment of the population whichexists at least partly in its fringes, although its members may notwant this known in the mainstream. The antisociety is, then, a metaphorfor the society, and it joins society at the level of the social system. The perspective of the antilanguage is generally that of adistinctly different view of the world, one which is thereforepotentially threatening, if it does not coincide with ones own'(Halliday 179). The purpose of the antilanguage is primarily fordisplay as its speakers struggle to maintain their counter-realitywhile existing within the confines of the world. An antilanguage, according to Halliday, brings into sharp reliefthe role of language as a realization of the power structure ofsociety (181). The antilanguages of countercultures, such as prisonsand criminal networks, are often full are defined against the socialstructure. Essentially, they are defined by what they are not. This isnot unlike the jargon or nomenclature of certain highly-specialisedprofessions, which may in some sense be seen as having a similar—thoughacceptable by society—counter-reality. Members of mainstream society who are speakers solely of standarddialect may have negative reactions to antilanguage. However, they willusually express this indirectly. For example, they may state that theydont like the vowels as they are pronounced by the speakers of theantilanguage, when in essence what they are saying is that they dontlike the values held by the speakers of the antilanguage. 3. Labovs Finding: The Concept of Sounding Labov and his colleagues (Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and JohnLewis) studied the vernacular of young American black males in theinner city areas of New York. The youths ranged in age from eight to 19years old, and they spoke a relatively uniform grammar, the language ofstreet culture. Labov and his team used a variety of methods to gather their data,the most important of which was long-term participant-observation withpeer groups (via). They collected tape-recorded conversations that tookplace on school buses, field trips, and parties—essentially, any typeof gathering where the youths got together and socialized. They thencarefully analyzed the data they collected, noting the patterns theyfound in speech events. Two examples of these exchanges are below. A: Eat shit. B: Hop on the spoon. A. Move over. B. I cant, your mothers already there. The following exchange is between two adolescents, John and Willie, with an observer (Rel) looking on: John: Who father wear raggedy drawers? Willie: Yeh the ones with so many holes in them when-a-you walk they whistle? Rel: Oh . . . shi-it! When you walk they whistle! Oh shit! (326) Given the insults against the person, his family, his poverty, aperson who is not a member of a given culture might expect thesituation to escalate into physical conflict. However, Labov points out that these are actually ritual insults. Herefers to this as sounding, which he describes as a complex patternof verbal conflict. Sounding has also been called playing the dozensor signifying. It consists of a dialogue that is usually performedfor an audience of observers who are usually peers. The dialogue itselfconsists of ritual insults, most of which are directed towards theother speakers mother, self, or housing situation. The speakers tradethese sounds back and forth as though in competition, and theaudience looks on. Occasionally an audience member will comment, approve, ordisapprove of the statements of one or both speakers. Labov points outthat the audience is an essential ingredient to this process: It istrue that one person can sound against another without a third personbeing present, but the presupposition that this is public behavior caneasily be heard in the verbal style. The presence of an audience has a definite impact on the speechevent. The sounds are no longer spoken in a direct, face-to-faceconversational mode when others are present. The speakers voices tendto be raised and they become more projected, suggesting full awarenessthat the audience is there. In the second exchange above, Rel makes acomment on Willies insult, praising it. In a sounding session, Labovpoints out, everything is public—nothing significant happens withoutdrawing comment. The rules and patterning of this particular speechevent are therefore open for our inspection (327). In fact, theexistence of an audience is considered a defining factor, according toLabov. A primary difference between sounding and other speech events isthat most sounds are evaluated overtly and immediately by theaudience (325). By closely analyzing the discourse of this segment of thepopulation, Labov was able to isolate certain characteristics and todiscern patterns in the structure of this ritua l exchange of insults.After a while, the fundamental difference that divides ritual insultsand personal insults became clear. For example, there was a very clearopposition between an insult that is made during this ritualperformance and an actual, personal insult. The appropriate responsesare quite different: a personal insult is answered by a denial, excuse,or mitigation, whereas a sound or ritual insult is answered by longersequences (335). The ritual insults must be exaggerated to thepoint of being ridiculous and clearly untrue. This is clear to both thespeakers and to the audience that is following the exchange. If theinsults violate this rule—for example, one speaker makes a comment thatis both derogatory and which is known to be accurate—the ritual mayturn into conflict. The speech event we call sounding is not isolated from other formsof verbal interaction: it can merge with them or become transformedinto a series of personal insults, asserts Labov (330). He points outthat when ritual insult passes over into a different level ofdiscourse, that of interpersonal conflict, the difference between thetwo is unmistakably clear. Audience reaction is a key tool in assessing sounds. Laughter isthe primary mark of affirmation. A really successful sound will beevaluated by overt commentsAnother, even more forceful mode ofapproving sounds is t repeat the striking part of the sound oneself'(325). Negative reactions to sounds happen with a similar frequency andare equally overt. At the end of any sounding contest, all members,speakers and audience alike, are keenly aware of the who has come outahead. 4-a. Goffmans Notion: Face in Politeness Goffman writes that the ritual order seems to be organizedbasically on accommodative lines (109). These lines allow individualsto build and maintain illusions about themselves, and are not governedby laws or justice. Rather, Goffman asserts, the main principle of theritual order is not justice but face (110). Hence, the governingprinciple is what allows individuals to save face. Individuals whocross the line do not suffer retribution, but rather receive what isnecessary to bolster the illusion of self to which they are committed. The ways in which an individuals may insulate themselves aremyriad. Some of them include half-truths, illusions, andrationalizations. Therefore, not only are they able to convincethemselves of the beliefs necessary to his continued sense of self,they are further bolstered by the support of those close to them. Thusthey continue to believe in the illusion of self, and this illusion isfurther maintained and reinforced by the members of their immediate,intimate circle (109). 4-b. Does face exist in the discourse when verbal conflict occurs? An incidence of verbal conflict requires the individual uponwhom the offense has been committed to react in some way. The type ofreaction will depend on the level of offense. One mechanism for savingface is avoidance. That is, if a person is offended by anotherindividual, but can let the incident go without losing too much face,then it is likely that the offended person will let the situation go.He or she may rationalize this by telling themselves that they willdeal with the offender at some point in the future, perhaps when thecircumstances are optimal—although it is just as likely that when thispoint in time presents itself, no action will be taken. If the offense committed against the person is great, an actionmust be taken by the offended person. They may decide to withdraw fromthe situation and may avoid future encounters with individuals whobreak the ritual code. Alternately, they may arrange to have theoffending person removed, thus ensuring that there will be no furthercommunication necessary with this individual. Societies must mobilize their members as self-regulatingparticipants in social encounters Goffman asserts. Ritual is one wayof doing this. Members of society are taught the importance of face,and that they should value such qualities as pride, honor, dignity, andpoise (110). Maintaining face then is a one way in which individuals protectthemselves and maintain their illusions of who they are and where theystand in the social hierarchy. This does not mean that face is realor authentic: Universal human nature is not a very human thing,asserts Goffman. By acquiring it, the person becomes a kind ofconstruct, built up not from inner psychic propensities but from moralrules that are impressed upon him from without (110). This constructis necessary for the individuals sense of self and helps him tomaintain the ritual equilibrium that is essential for his survival. 5. Brown and Levinson and the politeness phenomena Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson derive their definition offace from Goffman. They also include the English folk term, whichincludes the concept of being embarrassed or humiliated—or, simply put,losing face. They explain this further: Thus face is something thatis emotionally invested, and that can be lost, maintained, or enhanced,and must be constantly attended to in interaction (Brown and Levinson61). Brown and Levinson also point out that one individuals sense offace is dependent upon the continued maintenance of everyone elsessense of face. A threat to one individuals face, then, becomes athreat to all. Individuals in the community soon learn that it is intheir best interest to defend not only their own faces, but those ofthe other members of the community as well. Brown and Levinson discuss two kinds of linguistic politeness: positive politeness and negative politeness. Central to our model is a highly abstract notion of â€Å"face†which consists of two specific kinds of desires(â€Å"face-wants†) attributed by interactants to one another: thedesire to be unimpeded in ones actions (negative face), and the desire (in some respects) to be approved of (positive face)(13). Brown and Levinson offer fifteen strategies that speakers use to establish positive politeness: [H= addressee] 1. notice, attend to Hs interests, wants, needs, goods 2. exaggerate interest, approval, sympathy with H 3. intensify interest to H 4. use in-group identity markers -address forms -use of in-group language or dialect -use of jargon or slang -contraction and ellipsis 5. seek agreement 6. avoid disagreement 7. presuppose/raise/assert common ground–gossip, small talk 8. joke 9. assert or presuppose Ss knowledge of and concern for Hs wants 10. offer, promise 11. be optimistic 12. include both S H in the activity, using we 13. give (or ask for reasons) 14. assume or assert reciprocity 15. give gifts–goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation If positive politeness is defined as redress directed to theaddressees positive face, then negative politeness is redressiveaction addressed to the addressees negative face: his want to have hisfreedom of action unhindered and his attention unimpeded (129).Strategies used by speakers in the process of establishing negativeface include: 1. be conventionally indirect–opposing tensions, indirect speech acts 2. question, hedge 3. be pessimistic 4. minimize the imposition 5. give deference 6. apologize 7. impersonalize S H 8. state the FTA [face-threatening act] as a general rules 9. nominalize 10. go on record as incurring a debt, or as not indebting H Brown and Levinson have a third category for speech actions. Thisone is off record. A communicative act is done off record if it isdoe in such a way that it is not possible to attribute only one clearcommunicative intention to the act (211). 1. give hints 2. give assocation clues 3. presuppose 4. understate 5. overstate 6. use tautologies 7. use contradictions 8. be ironic 9. use metaphors 10. use rhetorical questions 11. be ambiguous 12. be vague 13. over-generalize 14. displace H 15. be incomplete, use ellipsis Off record politeness is a sort of hybrid strategy that falls in between the two and is difficult, if not impossible to definitively categorize (Brown and Levinson, 230). 6a. Grimshaws concept of conflict talk In the introduction to his 1990 volume Conflict talk:Sociolinguistic investigations of arguments in conversations, AllenGrimshaw writes: Conflict talk is at the same time so complex a phenomenon andone so deeply implicated in every dimension of human sociallife that it would be possible to identify dozens of reasonswhy it should be a focus of systematic inquiry; by thesame token one would be left wondering why its study hasbeen so neglected (3). Grimshaw points out that conflicts may have as their focus a numberof subjects, including beliefs, objects (things), persons, groups, orinstitutions (294). Interestingly, he asserts that as long as conflicttalk is sustained and the participants do not withdraw, conflicts need not increase in hostility. The increase in hostilityseems to occur only with an increased sense of intensity on both sides 6b. Goodwin and Goodwin: interstitial argument In their essay Interstitial argument, Charles Goodwin andMarjorie Harness Goodwin present the findings of their researchregarding verbal conflict. During the course of their research theywere able to closely study the relationship between participants andtheir local environment. One thing they found is that despite thedisruptive behavior that accompanies an argument, the participants payextremely close attention to the details surrounding them. During theargument, what goes on is actually a process of very intricatecoordination between the parties who are opposing each other (85). For a year and a half M.H. Goodwin audiotaped a group of urbanblack children as they played together in the street. This was onesegment of a larger project in which a range of speech activities werebeing studies. These activities included gossip, arguments, stories,and directives, and similar activities. Specifically, four childrenwere audiotaped during oppositional exchanges, and these exchanges werethen transcribed and analyzed. One of the issues at hand was aslingshot battle. All exchanges, from the planning stages to theselection of teams to the preparation of weapons, were studied inmeticulous detail. From these data Goodwin examined content shift andcontext within argument, multi-party argument, and piggybacking, oraffiliation in argument. Analysing their findings, the Goodwins discovered that by followingthe sequence of utterances, it was clear that the four individualsinvolved in the exchange did not have equal positions (107). It seemedclear that each side had a primary spokesman, followed by a secondindividual who followed the behavior of the primary spokesman. This ledGoodwin and Goodwin to conclude that the structures utilised in theprocess of negotiating opposition also provide resources for theparticipants, enabling them to duplicate types of social organization.Thus, the process of arguing essentially gives the participants resources for reproducing a life that is greater than that of the argument itself (113). Finally, Goodwin and Goodwin write that it has been argued that thetalk people produce during their dealings with each other is oftenconsidered to be too disorderly to be properly organized and studied.In response to this, they write that in analysing the data from thisstudy they found anything but disorder. The participants themselves,within the space of a very few turns, produce a range of systematicpermutations on a basic structure with a precision that would tax theingenuity of even the most inventive experimental design to replicate'(114). 6c. Schiffrin: argument: the role of opinions and stories Deborah Schiffrin asserts that everyday forms of talk are guidedby norms of co-operation and competition. Even argument, a form of talkwhich might seem to be the paradigm example of conflict talk, can be aco-operative way of speaking as well as (or instead of) a competitiveway of speaking (241). Schriffin uses Goffmans concepts of footing and frame asadditional links. Footing and frames are very similar to eachother. Schriffin explains the frame as the definition of thesituation, and the footing as the sort of alignments taken up byparticipation (242). She then goes on to explore opinions and stories. With regard toopinions, she admits that it is not always possible to find linguisticfeatures which mark a declarative statement as the presentation of an opinion, and that because of this,one needs to look elsewhere, and she presents her criteria fordiscerning what an opinion actually consists of, concluding thatopinions are unverifiable, internal, subjective depictions of anexternal worldthe facts presented by the author cannot remainundisputed, but the principals stance toward that proposition cannotbe/ disputed 248-9). This, she explains, also gives opinions aparadoxical status in argument, such that they can either initiate orend an argument (249). She then discusses the role of stories, breaking them down into: †¢ selective interpretation †¢ deictic (time) shifts †¢ evaluation †¢ contextualization First of all, she asserts, one must consider that theinterpretation of stories is highly selective. Individuals will choosecertain stories and interpret them in a way that justifies certainbehaviors and actions. Second, there are deictic, or time shifts, to beconsidered. For example, frequently a speaker must re-orient him orherself back to the actual time of the story, to a time when they mighthave had less knowledge or information about the story. The thirdaspect of stories that Schiffrin finds significant are the evaluativedevices used by the storyteller. These devices can be phonological,grammatical, or textual in nature. Finally, she asserts, stories arepresented as frames within certain events are explained,contextualizing them. Text Analysis on Verbal Conflict, using examples from the screenplay of Trainspotting 1. Overview. Trainspotting is a coming-of-age story in story of a group ofheroin-addicted young people from Edinburgh. It is a very vividdepiction of junkie life as well as a cross-section of life in the 90s.The title of the book, Trainspotting, is also a term used in theBritish Isles for people who, as a hobby, keep track of local trainschedules with excessive vigilance. Essentially, the term is synonymouswith wasting time, making this activity a sort of metaphor for heroinaddiction. Both activities are essentially pointless and futile. Drugs are a central focus of the story, and in particular (but notexclusively) heroin. This is very clear from the language that is used.This can be noted from the frequency of the occurrence of terms whichrelate to heroin. There are numerous references to the sale,acquisition, preparation, injection, and withdrawal of heroin. Thedrug-related words which appear with highest frequency include hit,junk, shot, and inject, each of which appear more than ten times.Other commonly used drug words include of course the drugitself—heroin—along with its many variations, such as smack and skag. However, despite the omnipresence of drug and drug-relatedactivities, the story does not set out to glorify heroin use; neitherdoes it condemn or moralize use of the drug. It does, however, give aclear depiction of the bleak environment this group of young peoplemust survive in. The area is working-class. References are made to DSSchecks and Giro, which are terms associated with the life of povertyand struggle. This dismal backdrop, and the fact that they have littlehope of physical escape, makes their wreckless behaviour a bit moreunderstandable. Their addictions seem to be the most reliable, if notthe only, escape. Trainspotting is very definitely a movie about youth culture. Itshows an intricate understanding of the issues and influences uponyouth at that period in time, and it realistically reflects thecultural experiences had by young people. Trainspotting appeals to acult-prone youth because it contains the elements that comprisefoundations of subculture in British culture. Alt hough other worksappealed to the youth culture of that period, Trainspotting enjoyed apopularity that exceeded most of them. This may have been due to itsauthenticity in replicating the youth culture experience. When it first premiered (and even now), the graphic detail ofits language and content was found to be rather shocking by some.However, it resonated very strongly with anyone familiar with drugculture. It reflects, sometimes quite graphically, the underbelly ofEdinburgh in the 1980s, and focuses, as mentioned earlier, mainly onone group of heroin addicts, as well as their friends and families.Their experiences as they struggle with very real issues that many canidentify with: life, work, family, death, the struggle to survive.Other issues—ones that may not have been part of mainstream culture—arepresented as well: AIDS, heroin overdose, heroin withdrawal, and raves,among others. The use of dialect is very powerful in Trainspotting. Inaddition, the social, political, and economic views expressed by thecharacters would have mirrored the views of societys fringemembers—specifically members of the youth and/or drug cultures. Renton and his mates do not rebel against society, but they doattempt to transcend in their destructive ways. Renton often parodiesfamous Thatcher quotes through his â€Å"Choose life† rants and frequentcomments regarding the emptiness of society, as demonstrated in thefollowing examples from the screenplay: †¢ Choose life. Choose a job. Choose a career. Choose a family.Choose a fucking big television, choose washing machines, cars, compactdisc players, and electrical tin openers. †¢ Choose good health, low cholesterol, and dental insurance. Choosefixed-interest mortgage repayments. Choose a starter home. Choose yourfriends. †¢ Choose leisurewear and matching luggage. Choose a three-piece suiton hire purchase in a range of fucking fabrics. Choose DIY andwondering who the fuck you are on a Sunday morning. Choose sitting onthat couch watching mind-numbing, spirit-crushing game shows, stuffingfucking junk food into your mouth. Choose rotting away at the endof it all, pishing your last in a miserable home, nothing more than anembarrassment to the selfish, fucked-up brats you have spawned toreplace yourself. Choose your future. Choose life. †¢ I chose not to choose life. I chose something else. And thereasons? There are no reasons. Who needs reasons when youve gotheroin? The lifestyle portrayed in Trainspotting has been described asrepresenting a detached subculture of British youth. However, thereis no evidence in the screenplay to support this assertion. The youngcharacters in this story simply attempt to survive in the largerenvironment by adapting in whatever ways they can, primarily throughmusic and through drugs. They do not attempt to change the status quo,nor are they champions of social reform. They simply react to the bleaksocial conditions that they were born into. Unable to physically escape their environment, they find release in music, drugs, alcohol, and sex. Renton is a prime example of this. He is not proactive, he issimply a survivor. He assesses situations with the manipulative eye ofan addict, and he reacts accordingly, taking advantage when he sees theopportunity. He and his contemporaries are merely representative ofyouth who are struggling for a sense of identity. Their mindset isambiguous; they react to outside societal pressures by employing theirchosen means. But they cannot be considered as a youth subculture basedon their language that has been described in the previous section. Language T